Capture and Immobilization of Free-living Jaguars (Panthera onca)

Introduction

Jaguars (Panthera onca) (Fig. 1) are the largest felid species in the New World and the only member of the genus Panthera, the roaring cats, that occurs in the Americas. They are the third largest cat species, being outsized only by lions (P. leo) and tigers (P. tigris). Although not the largest felid, jaguars have the strongest jaw in relation to head size of any of the cats, a fact that should be remembered whenever planning to capture and immobilize these animals. The body weight of jaguars is 90 - 120 kg for males and 60 - 90 kg for females, with a large variation in body size. Jaguars live in a wide variety of tropical habitats, ranging from montane forest and wet savannah to tropical rain forest and deciduous tropical forest. The largest documented jaguars occur in wet savannahs while jaguars that live in more forested regions tend to be smaller in size [1].

Figure 1. Male jaguar (Panthera onca). (Photo by Deem SL).

Historically the range of jaguars was the southern USA through Central and South America as far south as southern Argentina. Their current range is limited to a broad belt from central Mexico through Central America to Northern Argentina [2,3] (Fig. 2). The jaguar is known to be rare or extinct in many parts of its former range and it is approximated that 10,000 are left with several subspecies being rare.

Figure 2. Distribution of jaguar (Panthera onca). (With permission from: Sanderson EW, Redford KH, Chetkiewicz C-LB, et al. Planning to save a species: the jaguar as a model. Con Biol 2002; 16:58-72.).

Jaguars have been cultural icons for many indigenous American people, including the Mayans and Incas, and have fascinated humankind for millennia. In the more recent past, this fascination has been evident in the many scientific studies that have been conducted, primarily focusing on the natural history of jaguars [4-7].

Studies on the home range of jaguars have found large variation, with animals in the Pantanal of Brazil having ranges twice as large as those in a forested area of Belize. In the Pantanal, study males had a range of 50 - 76 km2 and females 25 - 38 km2 [7]. In the Belize study, males had a range of 28 - 40 km2 and females approximately 10 km2 [6].

Studies on the food habits of jaguars have been extensive with findings showing the variability related to the prey available and habitat type [5,6,8-10]. Large prey items include tapir, peccary, deer, and in some cases livestock. However, jaguars are opportunistic feeders and will consume capybara, sloths, armadillos, fish, reptiles, birds, insects, and, in coastal regions, sea turtles.

The biggest conservation threats for jaguars are due to habitat fragmentation and hunting of "problem cats" or cats for the commercial sale of their pelts [3]. Although the specific health threats to free-ranging jaguars are largely unknown at this time, they are probably similar to those cited for the health concerns of wildlife in general and include anthropogenic influences, often associated with increased contact that wildlife have with livestock, domestic carnivores and humans, as well as habitat fragmentation and contamination of their habitats [11]. Additionally, jaguar-human conflicts which include hunting of jaguar directly (often due to real or perceived high levels of predation on livestock), as well as hunting of their prey, is believed to be the number one "health" threat.

Many infectious and non-infectious diseases have been documented in captive jaguars. Non-infectious problems include a high incidence of neoplasia [12-15] which may be associated with husbandry in captivity and/or longevity. Many infectious agents have been documented to cause morbidity and/or mortality including protozoan [16], bacterial [17] and viral pathogens (i.e., canine distemper, feline infectious peritonitis) [18,19]. Additionally, there is serologic evidence of infection with canine distemper and feline immunodeficiency virus, [18,20,21]. It is also assumed that jaguars are susceptible to the common respiratory disease agents (i.e., Chlamydia sp., herpesvirus-1, and calicivirus) in domestic and non-domestic cats. Few studies have been conducted on the health status of jaguars in the wild with the majority of data on parasite infection and infestation [1,22,23]. However, it can be expected that the loss of habitat, and associated increased contact of jaguars with humans and their domestic animals, may lead to an increase in the incidence of infectious and parasitic diseases in free-ranging jaguars.

Reference ranges for physiological data values are available for captive jaguars. The hematologic values of 18 jaguars held at the Zoological Park in London are presented in one paper [24]. The International Species Information System (ISIS) provides tables with hematology and blood chemistry values based on sex and age [25]. The combined values for both sexes and all ages are presented here in Table 1 [25].

Many field researchers are currently immobilizing free-ranging jaguars for studies to answer the many questions that remain unknown about their natural history, biology, genetics and health status. Unfortunately, many of these researchers have little or no training in veterinary skills, such as anesthesia and troubleshooting during an anesthetic emergency. Although veterinarians should always be available and part of the jaguar handling team in the field, this often is not the case. This chapter provides a brief review of the literature on the capture and anesthesia of free-ranging jaguars, recommendations for the safe immobilization of free-ranging jaguars, and gives information on troubleshooting for anesthetic emergencies in the field. This chapter has been written for veterinarians and field biologists with previous training in basic anesthesia principles.

Immobilization Procedure

General Principles

Any person who immobilizes a wild jaguar must remember that she/he is solely responsible for the health of that animal from the time the drug is administered (or from the time the animal is captured or treed) until the animal has fully recovered from the anesthetic agent(s). It is imperative that anyone engaged in the immobilization of free-ranging jaguars know how to handle the anesthetized cat, monitor physiologic parameters, and respond to medical emergencies should they arise. Although many anesthetic agents are relatively safe in felid species, anesthetic emergencies can and do occur even under the best of circumstances.

Unlike the hospital setting where anesthesia is more controlled, there are unique problems related to immobilization of free-ranging wildlife in general, and large cats in particular. The capture method may itself result in injuries. Jaguars are aggressive cats and often when trapped will bite on cage material. Free-ranging jaguars have succumbed to tooth root abscesses following fracture of canine teeth from the capture procedure [1]. If chased by dogs and darted while in a tree, the fall itself may cause injury. For this reason, it is best to not dart a jaguar above 5 meter high in a tree to avoid traumatic falls. Jaguars are often highly stressed during capture. The capture team must strive to minimize stress due to the effects that stress may have on physiologic parameters that may compromise the animal once anesthetized. Lastly, it must always be remembered that capture in the wild of a potentially dangerous animal, such as a jaguar, has inherent risks for the capture team.

Capture Methods

There are a variety of capture and immobilization methods for free-ranging felids [26]. Wilson et al. [27] provide an excellent overview of capture methods for medium to large sized mammals. Methods that have been used to capture free-ranging jaguars include treeing the animal using dogs, padded foot-hold traps, snares (i.e., Aldrich snares) and cage or box traps [6,7,28]. The latter two methods may or may not include bait (i.e., live goat or pig) to lure the animal to the trap. Once the jaguar is treed or trapped, it can then be darted. The capture method employed for each jaguar capture should be based on the immobilization team’s previous experience, methods that have been successful in the region (if studies exist), habitat, and current weather conditions. In every capture and immobilization procedure the top priority is for a safe anesthetic event for both the jaguar and the people involved with the procedure.

Pre-anesthetic Management

Once a jaguar has been captured, it is important to perform the anesthesia as quickly as possible. When in a cage, the possibility of damaging canine teeth is high and may increase with prolonged time in the cage. A technique to minimize stress includes tranquilizer tablets [29,30] which are commonly used with padded foot-hold traps, but may be of value with the other capture methods. As is true for field immobilization in general, you should not take a lot of time once you begin your initial approach to dart the captured animal. An approximation of the body weight for the calculation of drug must be done to minimize a drug dose error. It is imperative that you have all your immobilization equipment ready prior to approaching the cat as reviewed in Osofsky and Hirsch [31].

Anesthetic Administration

Anesthetic agents should only be administered to free-ranging wild jaguars using remote drug delivery systems (RDDS). There are a variety of RDDS available for the practitioner, nicely reviewed by Bush [32] and Nielsen [33]. A blowpipe, or possibly a pole syringe, may be used for immobilizing jaguars in a cage, foot-hold trap or snare. In all other field situations, it is best to use a rifle or pistol (i.e., Telinject tm, Cap-Chur tm, Dan-Inject tm). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to cover the principles of all these products. The practitioner must be familiar with the instrument he/she chooses for use in the field. Darting animals is always associated with some degree of risks. Serious damage to the animal (and human participants) can and does occur if inappropriate instruments are used and/or if instruments are used inappropriately.

Dart and needle selection is also important in preparing for a jaguar immobilization. Darts that are too heavy and needles that are too long/thick can cause serious damage on impact. Damage is also possible if the charge of the dart or the charge of the rifle/pistol is too high. Needles available include collared, plain and barbed. A collared needle is often employed during immobilization procedures because it remains in the animal and ensures total drug injection. Unfortunately, if the jaguar is not adequately immobilized and cannot be restrained, the dart will remain in the animal and may cause problems.

The author recommends the use of 1.5 x 30 mm (18 gauge x 1 - 1/4 inch) collared needles for immobilizing free-ranging adult jaguars. However, if the jaguar is treed or trapped prior to darting, a non-barbed (plain) needle can be used. Non-barbed (plain) needles cause less trauma to the tissues but often do not remain in the animal as long as collared needles and thus may not inject all the drug prior to falling from the animal. Again, the practitioner must be comfortable and familiar with the equipment he/she takes to the field.

When darting a jaguar, it is safest to aim for the proximal region of a rear limb (Fig. 3). Some researchers recommend darting the triceps region of the front arm. If the anesthesiologist elects to use the front limb, it must be remembered that the thoracic region and head are in very close proximity to the intended site.

Figure 3. Dart placement sites for darting free-ranging jaguars (Panthera onca). (From: Deem and Karesh [47]).

Serious harm can be inflicted on the cat if the dart hits one of these regions. It is for this reason that the author recommends the hind leg unless the anesthesiologist is darting the jaguar at close range (i.e., in a box trap) (a shorter needle may be more appropriate when using the tricep region.) When aiming for the rear limb, darts should be placed in the caudal most aspect of the muscle mass to avoid the femoral bone and the sciatic nerve. Needles and darts must be disinfected prior to use on the next animal to prevent the spread of diseases. Although disinfection is often the only available means of equipment care in the field, it is best to sterilize needles between animals.

Anesthesia

Literature Review

The anesthetic protocols that have been used on free-ranging jaguars and are published in the literature are listed in Table 2. The author has included the sample size for those studies that published it. If you choose to use one of these protocols, you should refer to the cited paper for detailed information.

There are no published reports on the use of inhalant anesthesia used to immobilize free-ranging jaguars. Although portable anesthetic machines are available and have been employed during the maintenance of anesthesia for various free-ranging species, they are not practical and seldom available for field work. If inhalant anesthesia is an option for your particular project, you must first be familiar with inhalant anesthetics and available equipment for use in cat species [41].

Recommended Protocol

Currently, the author recommends the following anesthetic regimen for use by field personnel with little experience in immobilizing free-ranging jaguars. This regimen should provide an adequate plane of anesthesia for short-term work on the jaguar (i.e., radio-collar application, morphometric measurements, biomaterial collections) while requiring a minimal level of technical skill in anesthesiology.

Telazol (6 - 10 mg/kg ) IM as the dose for immobilization in free-ranging jaguars. The darter has the option to include 150 mg ketamine in the initial dart based on work by Hoogesteyn and Cavalcanti (unpublished data). Supplemental ketamine at a dose of 1 - 1.5 mg/kg, IV or 1 - 2 mg/kg IM, as needed to maintain an adequate level of anesthesia. (No supplemental ketamine should be delivered for at least 10 minutes after the initial dart containing telazol.) Atropine at a single dose of 0.04 mg/kg either SC or IM may also be administered if the cat has excessive salivation.

There have been anesthesia related problems with telazol use in large cat species, in particular tigers [42]. The author knows of no similar problems with the use of telazol in jaguars, but again, the practitioner should be prepared to deal with unexpected reactions.

One possible exception to this recommendation is the use of ketamine (10 - 20 mg/kg) alone when immobilizing any jaguar that has first been treed using dogs. This exception is based on anecdotal information that some jaguars have fallen from trees when immobilized with telazol or a ketamine / xylazine combination (H. Quigley, personal communication).

Antagonists

• Flumazenil is the antagonist for zolazepam (the benzodiazepine component of telazol) and can be administered, once all procedures are completed, at an IM dose of 1.0 mg of flumazenil for each 40 mg of telazol used. Flumazenil should not be administered for a minimum of 30 minutes after the initial dose of telazol was delivered to ensure the tiletamine component of telazol is nearly completely metabolized. There should also be at least 30 minutes between the administration of any supplemental ketamine administration and flumazenil.
• Yohimbine is the antagonist for xylazine and should be administered at 0.125 mg/kg IM and should only be delivered once the procedure is completed and at least 30 minutes after the last dose of the cyclohexane (ketamine) was given.
• Atipamezole is the antagonist for medetomidine and can be administered once all procedures are completed, at a dose of 4 - 5 x the medetomidine dose. For example, if 40 ug/kg of medetomidine was used for immobilization, reversal with atipamezole should be at a dose of 160 - 200 u/kg. This should be delivered IM. Atipamezole should not be administered for a minimum of 30 minutes after the last dose of cyclohexane (ketamine) was given.

Supplemental Drugs

There will be occasions when the initial anesthetic agent(s) does not provide adequate immobilization or when the effect of the anesthetic agent(s) begins to wane (i.e., increased animal movements, increased respiration and heart rate) prior to all procedures (i.e., radio collar application, sample collection) being completed. In these cases, it may be necessary to administer supplemental drugs for adequate anesthesia to allow safe handling. The following should be kept in mind if one is faced with either of these situations.

• Ketamine at a dose of 1 - 1.5 mg/kg IV or 1 - 2 mg/kg IM, as needed to maintain an adequate level of anesthesia should be a safe dose in MOST adult jaguars.
• Diazepam (valium) at the dose of 5 - 10 mg/jaguar should be administered slowly IV to any jaguar with extreme muscle rigidity, muscle tremors, and/or seizures. Diazepam can be administered again IV after 3 minutes if there is no response to the initial injection. If the jaguar still does not respond following the second injection, another cause of the seizure activity should be considered. If a vein cannot be located (i.e., moving animal), diazepam can be injected IM. Caution should be exercised in administering a second dose of diazepam following an IM injection due to a potentially slower rate of metabolism with IM injections.
• NEVER use telazol as the supplemental drug. If telazol is the initial immobilizing agent and it has not provided adequate anesthesia or if its anesthetic effects have worn off, it is best to supplement with ketamine either IV or IM. The dose of ketamine will depend on the plane of anesthesia prior to supplementation. 25 - 50 mg IV or 50 - 100 IM mg of ketamine total per jaguar should be a safe dose in MOST adult jaguars.
• NEVER use xylazine, medetomidine and midazolam as the supplemental drug. They should only be administered in combination with another drug (i.e., ketamine) for induction of anesthesia. It is best to supplement with ketamine either IV or IM. The dose of ketamine to deliver will depend on the plane of anesthesia prior to supplementation. 25 - 50 mg IV or 50 - 100 mg IM of ketamine should be a safe dose in MOST adult jaguars.

If you are not sure of how much of the original drug(s) was successfully administered (i.e., poor dart placement, dart bounced in and out quickly), you should wait at least 15 minutes following the initial dart prior to administering any additional agents.

Anticholinergics

Some authors recommend the addition of atropine to the anesthetic protocol for the anticholinergic property of decreasing salivary secretions. However, atropine can be associated with negative side effects, most commonly on the heart and gastrointestinal tract. In field situations it may be more appropriate to administer atropine only to those cats that are displaying excessive salivation during the immobilization procedure. A single dose should be administered: Atropine - 0.04 mg/kg SC or IM.

Animal Handling and Monitoring

Standard equipment for handling and monitoring the anesthetized jaguar should include those listed in Table 3. The author has listed just the bare minimal essentials that should be available whenever a jaguar is immobilized in the field. All handling equipment (i.e., towels, non-disposable gloves, veterinary supplies) should be disinfected prior to use on another animal to prevent the spread of diseases.

Immediately after the animal is darted and an initial assessment of the respiratory rate (RR; 8 - 24 breaths/minute) and heart rate (HR; 70 - 140 beats/minute) are deemed within normal limits, the dart should be collected (avoid handling the needle) and put in a safe place. It is best to have one person immediately take the physiologic parameters while a second person is in charge of the dart. The dart site on the animal should not be touched to avoid contact with drug residues and blood. People who will have contact with the immobilized animal should wear latex gloves during the immobilization procedure to avoid the transmission of infectious diseases between the animal and him/herself, as well as to minimize contact with drug residues at the injection site. The animal should be placed in a position that allows it to breathe easily (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Jaguar (Panthera onca) in lateral recumbency during anesthesia. (Photo by Deem SL).

Preferably, the jaguar should be placed in lateral recumbency. The head and neck should be placed in a position that allows air to flow through the mouth and trachea. The mouth should be kept lower than the back of the throat and neck so saliva flows out of the mouth and not into the trachea.

Once the animal is anesthetized and placed in the proper position, the eyes must be protected. A triple antibiotic eye ointment (i.e., Trioptic-P tm) should be applied in both eyes to prevent them from drying due to the lack of the normal blink response which is often the case when using ketamine and telazol anesthetics. A towel (non-abrasive material preferably) should then be placed over the eyes to protect them from the sun and dirt, as well as to minimize stressful stimulus to the animal. Cotton balls may be placed in the outer ear canal to minimize auditory stimulus. However, should one choose to use these, one must remember to remove them at the completion of the immobilization procedure. It is important to reduce the risk of wound infection by screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax). Topical betadine and a fly-strike ointment can be applied to the dart site, and to any abrasions that occur during the procedure, to protect against screwworm.

During all jaguar immobilizations, the physiological parameters (i.e., respiratory rate, heart rate, and temperature) MUST be monitored. If these values fall outside the normal range, the immobilization team should be alerted to a potential impending emergency and be ready to respond in the appropriate manner. The normal physiologic parameters for an immobilized free-ranging jaguar are the following:

Temperature (T) 37 - 39.5ºC (98.6 - 103.1ºF)
Respiratory Rate (RR) 8 - 24 breaths/minute
Heart Rate (HR) 70 - 140 beats/minute

Both respiratory rate and heart rate should be monitored every 5 minutes and the temperature should be taken every 10 minutes.

Monitoring these parameters can best be done by use of a thermometer, visual observation of chest wall expansion, and either palpation of the femoral pulse or use of a stethoscope. A rectal thermometer should be placed in the anus (digital thermometers are the best and easiest to use in the field) and the temperature monitored at 10 minute intervals during anesthesia. Respiration can be monitored by watching the thorax move when the animal breathes. The easiest way to determine the respiratory rate per minute, is to count the thoracic movements during 15 seconds and then multiply this number by four. If one does not have a stethoscope in the field, then light digital pressure over the femoral artery will provide a measure of the heart rate. Alternatively, a stethoscope can be used to auscultate the heart directly over the lateral aspect of the cranial thorax.

The recognition of what are normal jaguar responses to anesthetic agents is also imperative. Jaguars immobilized with telazol and ketamine usually will have increased salivation, open eyelids, whole body muscle rigidity (including jaw tone), and intact reflexes (i.e., corneal, pedal). Jaguars should maintain swallowing and coughing reflexes with these agents, but should not have muscle tremors and seizure-like activity.

In addition to the drugs necessary for safe and effective anesthesia (which includes a triple antibiotic eye ointment), a number of supportive medications are valuable for field work. Ivermectin (200 mcg/kg SC) should be administered to prevent screwworm infestation. Fluid therapy with Lactated Ringer’s solution (10 - 20 ml/kg IV or SC) for rehydration should be provided especially if the jaguar was trapped for an extended period and/or was highly stressed and hyperthermic. A long-acting antibiotic such as penicillin G benzathine(40,000 IU/kg IM) should be administered, especially for jaguars that have sustained significant trauma from the dart or a fractured tooth, had vomited during the procedure, or had active lesions at the time of immobilization. Both topical fly-strike and triple antibiotic ointments should be placed on the dart site as well as any active skin lesions.

Troubleshooting Common Anesthetic Emergencies in the Field

Any person who immobilizes a wild jaguar must remember that he/she is solely responsible for the health of that animal from the time the drug is administered (or from the time the animal is captured or treed) until the animal has fully recovered from the anesthetic agent(s). It is imperative that anyone engaged in the immobilization of free-ranging jaguars know how to handle the anesthetized cat, monitor physiologic parameters, and respond to medical emergencies should they arise. Although many anesthetic agents are relatively safe in felid species, anesthetic emergencies can and DO occur even under the best circumstances.

The author will not present a comprehensive review for all aspects of anesthesia-related veterinary emergencies. However, the author will provide highlights on the most common emergencies that may arise during the immobilization of free-ranging jaguars. The author strongly recommends that researchers performing jaguar immobilization do further reading on this subject [33,43-46].

The most common anesthesia emergencies in free-ranging jaguars are respiratory depression and arrest, cardiac arrest, seizures, hyperthermia, and wounds including canine tooth fractures. Additional problems include vomiting and aspiration, shock, capture myopathy, and dehydration as reviewed by Deem and Karesh, [47]. In Table 4, lists the drugs commonly used in emergency situations in the field.

Drugs may be delivered either intramuscularly or intravenously. If the intravenous route is chosen, the anesthesiologist must be familiar with the drug he/she is administering and be sure to deliver at an appropriate rate. Vessels for delivering drugs IV (and that are suitable for the collection of blood) include the jugular, cephalic, medial and lateral saphenous, femoral, and lateral tail veins (Fig. 5).

Figure 5. Collecting blood from the medial saphenous in an anesthetized jaguar (Panthera onca). (Photo by Deem SL).

The appropriate vessel to use will be determined on a case by case basis. For example, the jugular vein may be difficult to approach for the administration of diazepam to a seizuring jaguar. The needle size will depend on the vessel used, but generally the ideal needle size should be 1 - 1-1/2 inch and 18 - 22 gauge.

I. Respiratory Depression and Arrest - Results in tissue hypoxia caused by inadequate oxygenation of blood hemoglobin and is probably the number one anesthetic emergency encountered in the field.

Diagnosis of respiratory depression/arrest is based on:

• the jaguar taking few or no breathes (i.e., less than 4; no chest expansion) per minute;
• blue/gray mucous membrane (mm; gums);
• oxygen saturation is < 80% on pulse oximetry (if available).

During field immobilization there are a number of causes for respiratory depression/arrest including 1) drug-induced depression of the respiratory center; 2) airway obstruction due to malpositioning, excessive salivation or regurgitation, laryngeal edema; 3) pressure on the diaphragm from gastrointestinal contents; 4) excessive buildup of carbon dioxide which alters normal respiration; and 5) inapparent underlying disease process.

Treatment of respiratory depression / arrest should include the following:

1. DO NOT PANIC (this is true for all anesthetic emergencies!).
2. Do not administer any additional immobilization drugs.
3. Be sure the head and neck are in good positions (extended with no objects compressing them) so air can move through the mouth and trachea. Be sure there is no vomit or foreign objects blocking the trachea.
4. Intubate immediately if an endotracheal tube (ETT) is available. Administer oxygen through the ETT using an ambu bag, your own breath, or an oxygen tank (if available).
5. If no ETT or supplemental source of oxygen is available, use intermittent pressure on the chest to attempt to move air through the lungs. The jaguar should already be in lateral recumbency. Push down firmly on the chest at regular intervals (i.e., press for 1 second, wait for 1 second, press for 1 second and so on). Alternatively, you may attempt mouth-to-mouth or mouth-to-nose resuscitation. Exhale into the jaguar’s mouth or nose for a count of 2 sec and then inhale away from the cat’s mouth/nose for a count of 2 sec.
6. Administer 1 - 2 mg/kg doxapram IV (or IM in the tongue muscle if one cannot quickly find a vein).
   Note - Doxapram can cause arousal, especially in a cat immobilized with telazol, and caution for human safety must be considered if one elects to use this drug as a respiratory stimulant. Some veterinary anesthesiologists no longer recommend the use of this drug. If respiratory arrest is not corrected with steps 1 - 5 above, the author recommends the use of doxapram as a last attempt for resuscitation. If a person must inject the drug into the tongue, he/she should be very careful not to traumatize the oral cavity.
7. Administer appropriate anesthetic antagonist if available (i.e., flumazenil, yohimbine, atipamezole). However, do this cautiously as the antagonist will only reverse the drug it antagonizes and the jaguar may be semi-anesthetized and difficult to handle after the antagonist is administered.

II. Cardiac Arrest - Is usually preceded by respiratory arrest and is defined as the loss of effective cardiac function resulting in cessation of circulation. This is the most serious anesthetic emergency encountered during field immobilization.

Diagnosis of cardiac arrest is based on:

• Weak or absent pulse or heart sounds;
• Blue/gray mucous membranes (gums);
• Poor capillary refill time measured by applying digital pressure to the mucous membrane until the mm turns pale and then releasing the pressure and monitoring the seconds it takes until the mm color returns to normal (this value should be < 2 sec);
• Dilated pupils;
• Cold extremities;
• Loss of consciousness (hard to evaluate if the animal is anesthetized).

The most common causes of cardiac arrest during field immobilization are 1) drug-induced; 2) respiratory failure leading to hypoxia; 3) acid-base or electrolyte imbalance; and 4) underlying disease process.

Treatment of cardiac arrest should include the following:

1. Do not administer any additional immobilization drugs.
2. Be sure the animal can breathe prior to starting cardiac massage (see above).
3. Begin external cardiac massage. The jaguar should already be in lateral recumbency.
   Apply firm pressure downward over the heart. Compression of the heart should be for a count of 1 and release for a count of 1 with 60 - 100 cycles/minute. If an assistant is available he/she should palpate the femoral pulse to ensure adequate pressure, to circulate blood, is being applied during cardiac compressions.
4. Administer 0.02 mg/kg of 1:1000 (1.0 mg/ml) epinephrine IV or intracardially and continue with external cardiac massage. This dose is approximately 1.6 mg (1.6 ml) per 80 kg adult jaguar.
5. Administer 20 ml/kg cool Lactated Ringer’s Solution as an IV bolus (i.e., a single rapid infusion).
6. If there is no response, repeat 4 above at 5 minute intervals indefinitely.

III. Seizures - Are defined as disturbances of cerebral function characterized by a violent, involuntary contraction or series of contractions of the voluntary muscles.

Diagnosis is made based on clinical signs that include the following:

• Uncontrolled muscle and/or whole body spasms;
• Rigid extension of the limbs.

Causes include 1) drug-induced (i.e., ketamine and tiletamine); 2) trauma; and 3) hypoglycemia.

Treatment includes the following:

1. Administer 10 mg (total) diazepam IV slowly over 10 - 15 seconds.
2. Repeat step above if no improvements within 3 minutes.
3. Monitor body temperature to determine if secondary hyperthermia results from the seizure activity.

IV. Hyperthermia - Is defined as an increase in body temperature to a point where oxygen demand exceeds supply due to increased metabolism.

Diagnosis of hyperthermia: easily determined by rectal thermometer.

Temperatures > 41ºC (105.8ºF) are true emergencies.

Causes of hyperthermia in field immobilization include 1) internal heat production due to excessive physical exertion; 2) external heat absorption; 3) drug-induced compromise of thermoregulation; and 4) inability to use behavioral thermoregulation.

Treatment of hyperthermia includes the following:

1. Do not administer any additional anesthetic agents.
2. Make sure the jaguar is in the shade.
3. Use portable "cold" packs that can be placed in the groin, axillae (armpit) and belly of the jaguar.
4. Cool the jaguar by applying water over the body and/or alcohol to the extremities (legs and feet).
5. Administer cold water enema if tubing is available.
6. Administer 20 ml/kg cool Lactated Ringer’s Solution as an IV bolus (i.e., rapid fluid infusion).
7. Take the temperature every 5 - 10 minutes to determine if the temperature is decreasing. Continue to wet the animal if the temperature remains high.
8. Administer antagonist IV (IM if a vein is not readily identified). However, do this cautiously as the antagonist will only reverse the drug it antagonizes and the jaguar may be semi-anesthetized and difficult to handle after the antagonist is administered.
9. If it is believed that the hyperthermia is due to muscle rigidity and a light plane of anesthesia, diazepam at a dose of 5 - 10 mg/jaguar TOTAL can be administered slowly IV to decrease muscular activity.

Note - Hypothermia (< 35ºC = < 95ºF) - decreased body temperature to point of cellular death - is much less likely under most field conditions in which jaguar will be immobilized. However, this may occur (i.e., high altitude regions) and should be treated by warming the animal.

V. Wounds - Are often associated with the dart site as well as by trap or chase injuries. (Be especially cognizant of any oral lesions and/or broken teeth).

Diagnosis: based on clinical signs. The severity of the wound will dictate the treatment modality chosen:

• Physical examination to evaluate for traumatic lacerations and lesions;
• Oral examination to evaluate for oral lesions and broken teeth.

Treatment should always include:

1. Clean the wound with a povidone-iodine or 2% chlorhexidine solution. If neither of these is available, use soapy water.
2. If necrotic tissue is present and the field personnel are familiar with veterinary surgical techniques, debride the dead tissue and repeat step.
3. Only suture those wounds that you KNOW are fresh (i.e., caused by the dart) and that require sutures to minimize further tissue damage. Again, only field personnel who are familiar with veterinary surgical techniques should attempt to suture any wounds.
4. Apply topical antibiotic and fly-strike ointment to wound site.
5. Administer long-acting antibiotic IM (i.e., Penicillin G benzathine 40,000 IU/kg IM).
6. Administer ivermectin 200 ug/kg SC (to prevent screw worm infestation at site of broken skin).

Treatment of Broken Teeth

It is imperative that a fractured tooth (most commonly a canine is broken during jaguar captures and immobilizations) be repaired to minimize pain and infection associated with the tooth. A calcium hydroxide product (i.e., Dycal ®) can be used to cap the tooth pulp. Instructions for application come with tooth repair kits.

Post-anesthetic Recovery

The recovery period is just as important for proper handling and monitoring as the induction and maintenance periods. It is not uncommon for anesthetic related morbidity and mortality to occur during this period; in fact, most anesthetic complications occur during induction and recovery. Although there are reversal drugs for the zolazepam component of telazol (flumazenil), xylazine (yohimbine), and medetomidine (atipamezole), jaguar recoveries can not be completely reversed with one specific antidote as is available for narcotic immobilization agents (i.e., carfentanil, etorphine) commonly used in hoofstock. For this reason, it is important to ensure that the jaguar does not cause injury to itself or to people involved in the immobilization during the recovery period.

During recovery, the jaguar should be positioned so that it can breathe easily and will not harm itself on objects near it. The animal should be placed in lateral recumbency with the head and neck extended. Abrasive material should not be under the head due to possible head movements that could lead to corneal abrasions. People in the area remain quiet and should NOT stimulate the jaguar. It should recover at its own pace as it metabolizes the anesthetic agent(s). Stimulation will not result in a faster recovery, but it may cause the jaguar to injure itself.

If the jaguar was originally captured in a box trap, it may be beneficial to let the animal recover in the cage where it is dark and quiet. However, it must be remembered that when the cat is awake enough for release, the danger to field personnel may be significant when opening the cage. While in the cage and recovering, the animal may also be aggressive and cause harm to itself. Thus, if one is to use a box trap for recovery, it requires judgement to be sure the jaguar is awake enough prior to release, but does not cause harm to itself while still in the cage. Alternatively, when no trap is available (i.e., treed by dogs or darted from a blind), the animal can be placed in a quiet, padded (i.e., with leaf litter), and protected (i.e., not near ledges, hard structures) area to recover on its own. Risks are involved with both recovery methods.