Neonatal Care

The newborn goes through dramatic changes in its physiology during the first few hours following birth. The fetus that has been well-protected in the uterine environment and relying exclusively on maternal blood for respiration and nutrition is suddenly challenged by a totally new environment where it has to initiate normal respiration and digestive function. Most of the newborns are progressively prepared for these changes during the last few days of pregnancy and during the process of birth. This process of maturation of the fetus, or readiness for birth, involves all organs and especially the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Therefore, any complications during the last phases of pregnancy or at birth can compromise the ability of the newborn to survive. Early detection of compromised respiratory and cardiovascular function and prevention of complications due to exposure to physical and infectious factors from the environment increase the chances of survival. Thus the importance of evaluation and primary care for the newborn in the reduction of neonatal mortality is evident, since this is the major cause of production loss in camelidae.

Evaluation of the newborn

A good evaluation of the newborn animal depends on knowledge of the normal clinical data and behavior and identification of problems.

All camelidae are born in a relatively advanced stage of development and should be capable of standing, nursing, and walking on their own within a few minutes to one hour after birth (cf. Physiology of parturition). Failure to do so may expose them to different external factors that could jeopardize their life. It is therefore very important to monitor the new-born camelidae during the first few days of life in order to ensure that the animal is capable of thriving.

The newborn should be evaluated as soon as it is expelled. Normally, all camelidae are bom covered by the epidermal membrane (Figure 10.8). This membrane does not cover their nostrils and does not present any problems for breathing. The newborn is relatively active and can usually hold its head high within a few minutes of birth. Initial examination at this time should focus on the maturity of the newborn. A premature or dysmature newborn may present weakness, hyperextension of the limbs and neck, and dyspnea. Depending on how premature the newborn is, the chances of its survival are variable. In the dromedary, the young's chances of survival without intensive care are greatly reduced if born at less than 11.5 months of pregnancy. We have found that close examination of the epidermal membrane is very helpful in evaluating prematurity and the degree of stress in the new-bom dromedary. The epidermal membrane in the premature camelidae is firmly attached to the extremities. In case of dystocia or prolonged birth, the epidermal membrane becomes yellow because of increased defecation and even diarrhea in the fetus (Figure 10.8).

The most important parameters in the evaluation of the newborn are birth weight, heart rate, type and rythm of respiration, and body temperature. The average normal birth weight ranges from 8 to 14 kg in llamas and alpacas and 30 to 42 kg in the dromedary and Bactrian camels (a discussion of birth weight is given later in this chapter). Smaller sizes should be considered dysmature and require intensive care. The heart rate is usually very high at birth - 60 to 100 beats per minute for llamas, and 80 to 120 beats in the dromedary. Respiration should be regular at 20 to 30 per minutes. Signs of respiratory distress include open-mouthed breathing (gasping for air), presence of rales or heavy breathing due to collapsed lungs or presence of fluids. Normal body temperature varies from 37.5° to 39°C. The newborn may show shivering during the first few hours after birth but this is normal. Suckling reflex is usually shown within the first half hour after birth with increased salivation.
 

All newborns should be examined for any signs of congenital abnormalities, in particular abnormal limb development, atresia ani, cleft palate, abnormal reflexes, and blindness. Many congenital abnormalities of different systems have been described in the llama and alpaca.^{(28-31, 41, 56)} The most common abnormalities encountered in the dromedary neonate are limb deformities (Figure 10.9). Two cases of persistent urachus and one case of congenital goiter were diagnosed in our clinic (Figure 10.10). Abnormal posture in the standing animal is frequently observed in the heavy newborn dromedaries (especially males) but this type of problem tends to resolve within a few weeks. Inability to stand or very exaggerated limb deformities are common in the premature animal. Also, a high frequency of eye problems are encountered during the first week of life in the newborn dromedary with a severity ranging from mild conjunctivitis with excessive lacrimation to blindness (usually premature animals) (Figure 10.10).

Close examination of the placenta is also important for the prediction of possible problems in the newborn. The presence of a small placenta is usually associated with prematurity or small fetuses. Presence of inflammatory or infectious lesions warrant the initiation of a course of antibiotic treatment in the newborn to prevent septicemia.

First care of the newborn camelidae

Adequate postnatal care allows an increase in chances of survival for the newborn. This care includes preventive measures against infection and exposure to environmental factors.

Prevention of exposure

The most important environmental factor that may affect survival of the new-born camelidae is low temperatures. The effect of this factor is reduced naturally because most births, at least in the South American camelidae, take place during morning hours. In the dromedary, births can take place at any time of the day and therefore the newborn should be moved to a protected place if the temperature is cold or too hot.

Prevention of infection

Prevention of infection in the newborn starts before birth and is continued during and after birth (cf. Management of reproduction). All dams should be vaccinated against tetanus, and Clostridium perfringens (type C and D) during the last month of pregnancy to insure adequate amount of colostral antibodies at parturition. Prevention of infection during birth relies on good management of the parturient, including clean environment at parturition and aseptic obstetrical manipulation. The parturition pen should be regularly cleaned and close to a source of light in case manipulation is required. Immediately after delivery, the umbilicus should be cut and tied and dipped in 7% tincture of iodine for protection against umbilical infections (Figure 10.11). The umbilicus should be examined regularly in the first few hours for the presence of abnormalities (herniation or hemorrhage). All these treatments are helpful, but the most important part of prevention of infection is to guarantee adequate transfer of immunoglobulin from the colostrum.

Passive transfer of immunity

Because of the lack of placental transfer of immunoglobulin, camelidae are bom almost agammaglobulinemic. In addition, they do not have a mature immune system at this stage and rely exclusively on passive immunity absorbed from maternal colostrum for their protection against infection during the first weeks of their life.^{(34, 56)} This lack of transplacental transmission of immunoglobulin and the importance of colostrum intake is well illustrated in the new-bom llama by the increase in total protein and serum IgG and IgM concentrations at 24 hours after birth.^{(14, 33, 71)} We have found similar results in the dromedary camel (Table 2).

The duration of the ability of the intestine to absorb colostral immunoglobulin is not known with precision in camelidae. Work in llamas and alpacas suggests that this absorption is possible during the first 24 hours of life but that the maximum absorption is achieved during the first 8 to 12 hours.^{(33, 34, 41, 56)}
 

Assessment of transfer of immunoglobulin

Failure of passive transfer of colostral immunoglobulin is the major factor in neonatal mortality in alpacas and probably also in other camelidae.^{(33, 34, 41,  56)} Therefore, evaluation of the passive transfer of immunity is very critical in the management of new-born camelidae. Several techniques are available for the quantitative and qualitative evaluation of serum IgG. IgG levels in the serum can be determined by radial immunodiffusion or protein electrophoresis tests but these methods are usually time-consuming and require laboratory facilities and therefore are not practical for field work.^{(33, 34, 41,  56)} The zinc sulfate turbidity tests are rapid and inexpensive and can be done in the field. Interpretation of these tests should be done carefully as the turbidity in camelidae is usually lower than that of the bovine and equine. Measurement of total serum proteins (refractometry) can be a useful, quick test to estimate colostral transfer of immunoglobulin. However, this test can be affected by several factors such as dehydration. All these tests should be compared to a positive control (dam serum or normal newborn).

Prevention and management of hypogammaglobulinemia

Prevention of failure of passive transfer is easily done by monitoring colostrum intake during the first 24 hours of life. Most of the failures of passive transfer are due to either lack of adequate udder function (agalactia or hypogalactia) or failure of the new-born to suckle. In any case, colostral intake cannot be delayed until treatment of the primary cause of failure of passive transfer. If the newborn is not capable of suckling, or in the case of agalactia, sufficient colostrum should be administered within the first 12 hours of life. There is no data concerning the appropriate amount of colostrum to be given during the first 24 hours of life. In the dromedary, we have been using the same guidelines given for calves or foals (250 to 300 ml every' two hours with a total of 1.5 to 2 liters in the first 18 hours). Colostrum can be taken from a dam which had a successful birth and adequate milk production and stored for as long as a year in a deep freezer (-20°C). Goat colostrum has been suggested by others for use in llamas and alpacas.^{(41, 56)} For the lama and alpaca, colostrum intake during the first 24 hours should approach 8 to 10% of body weight delivered in small quantities (125 to 250 ml) every 2 hours.^{(41, 56)} Bottle feeding is usually well tolerated and does not present any problems in the alert new-born camel with good sucking reflex. However, if the newborn is weak, colostrum should be administered via a stomach tube. The stomach tube should be passed to the distal esophagus to facilitate passage of colostrum directly into the third stomach compartment via the esophageal groove and to prevent stagnation and fermentation in the first compartment. Plasma from tire dam can be administered orally in lieu of colostrum if no colostrum is available.

After 12 or 18 hours of life (reduction of intestinal absorption) the best treatment of severely hypogammaglobulinemic newborn is parenteral administration of plasma. Plasma is given by slow intravenous injection. In the llama, plasma is administered at the dose of 15 to 25 ml per kg at the rate of 100 ml per hour. Slow rate helps avoid overload, hypertension, and pulmonary edema. Reaction to transfusion is rare but the newborn should be carefully monitored for signs of elevated heart rate, trembling, and dyspnea. Whole blood transfusion is also recommended if the new-born is anemic or if separation of red blood cells from the plasma is not possible. Administration of fresh plasma can begin immediately after collection and centrifugation. Plasma can also be stored in the same way as colostrum. Plasma immunoglobulin concentration can be increased by using the initial 50% of the fraction obtained after thawing. The immunocompromised neonate is very susceptible to infection and septicemia and many practitioners suggest antibiotic therapy as part of the intensive care management. Administration of Vitamin E-selenium preparations intramuscularly to neonates is advised in some geographical locations. Caution should be exercised when using antibiotics because of their high nephrotoxicity in camelidae neonates. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should be avoided if possible because of the risks of development of gastroduodenal ulcers.

During the first 3 days of life the newborn should be checked for normal urination and defecation. Meconium retention is frequently seen in dromedaries which did not receive enough colostrum. These animals start to show progressive depression with one or two days of birth associated with colics and abdominal pain. These cases respond well to administration of mild laxatives and/or paraffin enema.

Intensive care of the newborn

Intensive care may be necessary in severely depressed new-born camelidae and is usually justified if they have a great economic value (valued breeding or race animal). This care should be provided in hospital facilities because it will be necessary to continuously monitor the animal. Prior to initiation of any therapy, the animal should be thoroughly examined to estimate its chances of survival. The severity of hypoglobulinemia as well as state of hydration should be estimated, and the animal should be examined for any signs of retardation or abnormal development including congenital abnormalities which will preclude this treatment. A venous catheter should be placed immediately and in a sterile manner at the level of the jugular or saphenous veins. Catheters should be changed every 3 to 4 days. Compromised newborns require immediate attention for respiratory distress, hypothermia, hypoglycemia, and hypoglobulinemia. Hypoglycemia can be prevented in the absence of nursing by intraveinous administration of a glucose solution. (10%). The neonate blood glucose, electrolytes and acid-base status should be monitored. Dysmature animals are usually hypokalemic and hypochloremic with an occasional mild hyponatremia. Most of these balances can be corrected by 0.9% saline solution or a balanced electrolyte solution. Potassium (10 to 20 mEq/l) and glucose (5 to 10%) are added to the intravenous fluids. Serum potassium levels usually underestimate replacement requirements, so in severe hypokalemia, additional KCL should be given orally.^{(1, 41, 42, 56)}

There are no clear guidelines as to the amount of fluids to be administered to the camelidae neonate. Therefore, treatment should be accompanied by close monitoring of the state of hydration, urination, weight gain, and pulse quality. Parenteral nutrition should be substituted progressively by oral feeding with milk or milk replacer. Metabolic acidosis is the most common acid-base disturbance in the neonate and is promptly corrected by volume expansion with a balanced electrolyte solution. Most of the severe signs of illness in premature or septicemic newborn animals are due to hypoxia. These conditions may require oxygen therapy by face mask, oxygen cage, or nasal catheter, and even positive pressure ventilation if the neonate is severely affected. ^{(1, 41, 42)}

Body position is very important in managing neonates with compromised respiration. The position of the animal should be changed frequently from lateral to sternal to avoid accumulation of fluid in some parts of the lungs.

Causes of neonatal mortality

In addition to poor fertility, neonatal mortality has been reported as the leading cause of reduced performance of llamas, alpacas, and dromedary herds.^{(26, 27, 75-77)} The average pre-weaning mortality rate in the dromedary reared in traditional systems varies from 10 to 30%.^{(5, 6, 12, 61, 75-78)} Mortality and morbidity rates are higher in intensive types of production systems because of the presence of epidemiological factors favoring transmission of infection from one animal to another. In our practice, mortality rates in dromedaries observed in some herds during the first 3 months can reach alarming proportions (more than 60%). On the average, morbidity rates and mortality rates observed in the UAE are respectively 40% and 25% (Tibary and Anouassi, unpublished). Determining the cause of neonatal mortality is a very frustrating experience especially if specialized laboratory support is lacking, which is often the case in developing countries. Therefore, the majority of the neonatal deaths remain undiagnosed.

In the llama and alpaca, the major causes of neonatal mortality are enterotoxemia caused by Clostridium perfringens types A and C, and pneumoniae.^{(1, 38, 59)} Escherichia coli was isolated from crias with diarrhea and from dead crias.⁽²⁴⁾ Occasionally, Streptococcus pyogenes infections resulted in some cria deaths.⁽²⁶⁾ Increased infectious disease morbidity and mortality in neonates are associated with inadequate passive transfer of immunoglobulin as evidenced by low serum immunoglobulin concentrations in sick or dead neonates.

In the dromedary, neonatal diarrhea has been associated with outbreaks of Clostridium perfringens (Type D).⁽¹⁹⁾ The gross and microscopic lesions observed are those of acute catarrhal enteritis. Though hemorrhages are frequently seen in sections, the picture is not typical of the hemorrhagic enteritis seen in enterotoxemias of sheep. Cardiac lesions may be observed in some neonates. Initial diagnosis of enterotoxemia is based on demonstration of C. perfringens on impression smears prepared from intestines. Confirmation of the diagnosis is obtained by results of culture and isolation of the organism in pure culture under anaerobic conditions. The pathogenesis of enterotoxemia may involve intake of large quantities of milk in neonates with heavy milking dams which favors the proliferation of the organisms in the intestinal tract.

From a clinical perspective, the leading cause of neonatal diarrhea in the dromedary and llama is colibacillosis (Figure 10.12). The incidence of this disease is increased in overcrowded pens and concern mainly animals between one and 5 weeks of age. The severity of diarrhea varies from pasty to profuse watery. The onset of symptoms and death can occur very quickly giving to the disease a Sudden Death Syndrome characteristic. Early detection of sick animals is the key for a successful treatment and preventive measure to stop development of new cases. Treatment of neonatal diarrhea should focus on rehydration of the animal and antibacterial treatment. Oral rehydration with bovine electrolytes preparation has been successful for us if the case is at the early stages and the animal is still able to nurse. In cases with severe septicemia and collapse, intravenous fluid therapy is required. Severely affected animals may require complete parenteral nutrition. A solution of amino acids (3.4%), dextrose (20%), soybean oil (2%), -vitamins balanced to correct deficits of potassium chloride (30 mEq/F), and sodium bicarbonate (45 mEq/L) was used successfully in a llama with profuse diarrhea.⁽³⁷⁾

Growth of the newborn

Growth of the young from birth to weaning is the best indicator of the health of the offspring and also the milk production in the dam. Therefore, the monitoring of new-born growth is an important management tool for the early identification of "poor doers" and rectification of problems involved. Monitoring of young animals should include at least their birth weight and weight at monthly intervals.

Birth weight

Birth weights in dromedaries range from 26 to 45 kg.^{(8, 9, 58, 64, 67, 79)} The mean birth weight in one study of 134 dromedaries was 37.3 kg.⁽¹³⁾ In another study on 522 Bikaneri dromedaries the birth weight averaged 41.0 ± 0.2 kg.⁽⁷³⁾ Birth weight is certainly affected by breed or type of dromedary. Most studies show heritability estimates for birth weight in the order of 0.5 to 0.6 which indicates that rapid improvement can be achieved if animals are selected on the basis of this criterion.^{(17, 73)} Birth weight can be very variable in non-selected herds. In one study, the smallest and highest weights recorded were respectively 26.4 kg and 52.2 kg.⁽¹³⁾ The most important factors affecting birth weight within the same breed or type are sex, pregnancy length, season of birth, and nutritional status of the dam (Table 3 and 4).
 

The effect of sex of offspring and season of calving are controversial.⁽¹³⁾ Most of the studies report a difference of 0.3 to 1 kg in favor of male offspring.⁽¹³⁾ However others have reported no difference or even some superiority of female offspring.⁽⁷³⁾

The effect of pregnancy length on birth weight is also controversial. Some studies show that birth weight is increased significantly with increased gestation length while others fail to show this association.^{(9, 58, 64, 66)}

The parity of the dam has a significant effect on birth weight. Animals born to primiparous dams tend to be significantly lighter at birth than animals bom to pluriparous females (38.8 ± 5.2 kg vs. 44.4 ±5.5 kg).^{(45, 73)}

Dam nutrition and health status also have a great influence on birth weight. In Kenya, animals born in well-managed herds are heavier (29.0 ± 5.5 kg) than those bom in non-supervised herds (25.8 ± 5.6 kg).^{(68, 69)}

Part of the controversies reported about the effect of some of these factors on birth weight may be explained by the relatively small number of observations and the confounding effect of factors such as management, breed, and season.

Birth weights in the Baetrian camel range from 35 kg to 54 kg with the males usually 3 to 5 kg heavier than the females at birth (Table 5).

Birth weight in the South American camelidae varies from 6 to 8 kg in alpacas and from 7 to 15 kg in llamas. Male crias are usually heavier at birth titan female crias.^{(15, 31, 47, 54, 56, 70)} The same factors of variation described in the dromedary probably exist in the llama and alpaca (Tables 6 and 7).
 

Growth

Monitoring the growth of the neonate is very helpful for the detection of sick or ill-thriving animals before they become clinically weak. There are very few studies concerning the normal growth rate in camelidae and factors affecting it.^{(43, 44, 77, 79)} In the dromedary, the maximum growth rate is attained in the first 3 months of life.^{(10, 11)} Growth of the neonate is directly correlated with the dam's milk production and with the physiological state of the young. Growth rate in the dromedary can also be affected by climatic conditions, especially temperature and relative humidity.^{(48, 2)} Other factors may affect postnatal growth rate such as breed and management of feeding. Poor doers are usually easy to spot by inspection of the body condition, nature of their coat and activity (Figure 10.13).

In the llama, the average daily gain from birth to 7 weeks of age was estimated at 420 g.⁽⁴¹⁾ The age of the cria doubles at around 1 month of age. The average daily gain drops to 290 g from 7 to 24 weeks, and to 0.16 kg from 24 weeks to 72 weeks.^{(40, 41)} In another study, estimated average daily gain was 200 g from 2 to 6 months and 150 g from 6 to 18 months.⁽⁷⁰⁾

Artificial rearing

Artificial rearing can be required for some young animals, especially orphans, when fostering by another dam is not possible. Bottle feeding is also common practice if the dam is agalactic or if she rejects the newborn. In the dromedary, artificial rearing (using reconstituted milk) is being introduced in some herds in order to shorten the lactational anestrus and rebreed the dam early after parturition.^{(21, 43, 44)} This technique has been used successfully to reduce the calving interval to 15 months instead of 2 years.⁽¹⁸⁾ In a Tunisian study, the interval between parturition and re-breeding was 18 days and the interval between calving was 403 ± 8 days after early weaning, whereas suckled dams average a calving interval of 715 ± 31 days.⁽⁵⁰⁾

Many types of milk replacers can be used for artificial feeding of camelidae. In the dromedary', we have successfully used foal or calf formula. Lamb starter milk substitute or natural ewe milk have also been used with no difference in growth rates in artificially-fed animals and suckling animals.^{(18, 21, 23)} The animal can be easily trained to bottle feeding. If artificial rearing is used on a large group, the technique used for the bovine (a bucket with several rubber teats) is easily-adapted to the dromedary.

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