History and General Physical Examination

Breeding soundness examination should never be limited to the evaluation of the reproductive tract. It is mandatory that all females referred for reproductive problems be subjected to a general physical examination. This examination should include the following aspects: history pertaining both to general health and reproductive performance, behavioral evaluation, general physical examination, and detailed gynecological examination.

History

General and reproductive history is the easiest tool available to the practitioner for determining causes of reproductive failure and prognosis. History should cover all parameters that may have an impact on reproductive performance. These include:

*    Identification and origin of the animal
*    Age
*    Type of animal and previous use
*    Types of management and nutrition
*    Breeding records
*    Past health problems
*    Reason for examination

Identification and origin of the animal: Identification of the animal is very important for obvious reasons. As described earlier (cf. Breeding Soundness Examination of the male), several methods of identification are used for camelidae. The practitioner should opt for the more precise and more recognized type of identification available. The animal's origin (bred-and-raised or purchased) should be recorded. If the animal has been purchased, its reproductive history should be tracked down if possible and recorded.

Age: The impact of age on reproductive performance concerns mainly young maiden females and old females. In young females, special consideration should be given to the onset of puberty and the ability to carry a pregnancy to term. The age of onset of puberty and ovarian activity in the camelidae female has been discussed elsewhere in this publication (cf. Physiology). Very little is known about the exact age at onset of puberty in the camelidae but in general, females are joined when they are sufficiently developed (60% of the adult weight). Breeding younger or underdeveloped females usually results in a high incidence of early embryonic death, abortion, or complication at birth. Reproductive performance decreases with increasing age and number of pregnancies. Although pregnancies and normal deliveries have been reported in the dromedary and Bactrian female as old as 30 years, fertility should be expected to decrease in these species after 15 years of age or the fifth parturition, especially if the animals are under harsh environmental and nutritional conditions and even earlier if they receive very little veterinary care. In llamas and alpacas, fertility decreases after 10 years of age. Decrease in fertility in older females, especially pluriparous females, is due to degenerative changes in the uterus.

Type of animal and previous use: Camelidae have a multitude of uses ranging from production to pleasure (cf. Introduction). The type and use of the animal can have a direct or indirect effect on reproductive performance. In the dromedary, racing animals tend to be under a lot of stress during their racing career and may have been exposed to anabolic steroid treatments which could hinder their reproductive ability. In addition, good racing females are usually introduced to reproduction in advanced age (some dromedary females can compete until 14 years of age). In the llama and alpaca, there is a great difference in the reproductive life between animals reared in the natural harsh environment and those that are raised as pets or in a small, well-managed modern herd.

Type of management: A great deal of reproductive failure is due to bad management practices, specifically management of breeding. It is very important to evaluate the level of expertise of the owner especially when dealing with new cases. A complete questionnaire on the background of the owner, the herd size, and the management of breeding will allow the practitioner to identify management flaws or constraints that can affect fertility. The questionnaire should cover the following:

* Herd size, age and sex distribution (cf. Management)
* Management of breeding: origin of sire (in farm or external); method of breeding (hand mating or free mating); criteria for breeding; pregnancy diagnosis method; parturition facilities, postpartum breeding
* Type of housing (individual pens, group pens, large paddocks, nomad herd)
* Nutrition and health management
* Evaluation of record keeping

Evaluation of the breeding records: Evaluation of the breeding records should be done at the herd level and at the individual level. Evaluation of the herd breeding records allows the practitioner to have a good idea about the fertility in the herd and appreciate the overall level of breeding management and reproductive performance. This aspect is discussed in detail in a later chapter (cf. Management of reproduction in camelidae). Individual breeding records are important in order to better define the reproductive problem for a particular case when no obvious herd problems are encountered or when the animal is very valuable. This evaluation should be as complete as possible and cover the following:

* General breeding history: maiden, primiparous, pluriparous
* History of previous parturition: number, dates, average pregnancy length, number of breedings per pregnancy, normalcy, neonatal problems
* Breeding history: dates of breeding, behavior at breeding, male used for each breeding
* Previous reproductive problems: failure to conceive, number of years barren, number of unsuccessful breedings
* Parturition complications: laceration, retained placenta, uterine prolapse.
* Previous diagnosis and treatment of reproductive problems such as uterine infection, failure to ovulate...
*Abortion (including stage of pregnancy) or early embryonic death, diagnosis attempts
* Actual breeding status: unknown, never bred, open, bred (last breeding date and sire), presumed pregnant (pregnancy diagnosis method, last breeding date and sire)
* Postpartum: parturition date

Previous health problems: A history of previous illnesses and treatments is extremely important not only because of the possible effect of some diseases on the reproductive performance but also because of the potential effect of advanced pregnancy on the health of the female in case of some chronic diseases. A complete history of health problems can identify females with high-risk pregnancies.

Reason for examination: In general the reason for a gynecological examination of the female falls into one of the following categories: 

* Pre-breeding examination: This is usually requested by the best-managed herd or by the owners of valuable studs. The pre-breeding examination should be done on all recently-acquired females, females that have had a history of reproductive problems, and maiden females recently introduced into the reproduction program. This examination should include at least rectal palpation, ultrasonography, and uterine culture.
* Pre-purchase examination: This examination is very important from a legal point a view. It is important that the practitioner clearly states the reliability of each examination procedure in predicting fertility and advises the owner about the extent of investigations to be done in a particular case.
*Routine post-breeding examination: determination of ovulation, pregnancy diagnosis
* Examination for a specific reproductive problem: conception failure, repeat breeding,
* Abnormality or injury: abnormal vulva, lacerations, abnormal vaginal discharge, prolapse
* Pregnancy abnormalities: overdue, abortion
* Obstetrical problems

General physical examination

Clinical evaluation of the female should be done before any manipulation of the genital tract. Evaluation of the general health status is particularly important if the animal is examined for an obstetrical problem. This examination starts with the evaluation of the biological parameters (temperature, pulse and respiration) as well as the evaluation of the body condition (cf. Management). Clinical evaluation should be more thorough if the animal is presented with signs of distress. For the dromedary female, we generally recommend a complete blood count and biochemistry and a trypanosomiasis test. Cardiopulmonary evaluation is a must if chemical immobilization is needed.