Diseases of the Postpartum Period

Retained placenta

Retained placenta is defined as the failure to expel the entire afterbirth within a normal time after expulsion of the placenta. Delivery of the placenta takes place shortly after expulsion of the fetus in camelidae (cf. Physiology of parturition). In the llama and alpaca, the placenta is considered to be retained if it has not been completely expelled 6 hours after birth.⁽⁵⁸⁾ In the dromedary, delivery of the placenta can take up to 12 hours without any effect on the parturient. The speedy delivery of the afterbirth in camelidae is due to the simple, diffuse microcotyledonary type of placenta which makes separation of the chorionic villi from the maternal crypts very easy. In fact, the incidence of retained placenta in camelidae is very low. In our clinic, the incidence of retained placenta following normal birth is on the order of 2%. However, the incidence of retained placenta is increased following dystocia and cesarean section. Most of the cases of retained placenta observed after normal birth were due to uterine inertia. In these cases, the allanto-chorion is completely separated from the uterine wall and rests within the uterus with a small portion visible at the vulva. In such cases, the entire placenta is removed by traction on the visible portion hanging from the vulva (Figure 8.24). Although we have never encountered any cases of septic metritis after placental retention in the dromedary, we systematically monitor females with retained placenta and treat them with an antibiotic course.

In some cases, a retained placenta may require manual removal. In such cases, the perineum is scrubbed with soap and water. A gloved hand is introduced into the birth canal while the other holds the exteriorized part of the placenta. The placenta is separated from the uterine wall by gently sliding the hand between them to cause separation between the chorion and maternal crypts. This action is repeated progressively until the entire placenta is removed. A placenta removed in this manner should be spread to verify that it is complete. Incomplete placenta may reveal denuded patches on its velvety surface (chorion) corresponding to lost tissue or absence of the part corresponding to the tip of the horns. Also, the placenta should always be examined for any evidence of lesions. In the case of partial retention of the placenta or evidence of placentitis, an antibiotic treatment should be commenced as soon as possible to prevent development of septic metritis. Other techniques of treatment of retained placenta used in the equine, such as distention of the uterus with warm, dilute povidone iodine solution or injection of oxytocin (30 to 40 IU IM for the dromedary, 20 to 30 IU for llamas) to promote uterine contraction are also used in camelidae. Oxytocin can be administered as a single injection or by a slow intravenous drip of 60 to 100 IU in 1 liter of sterile saline.

Development of a fetid smell of the postpartum discharge should warrant isolation of the newborn from the parturient to avoid its infection by ingestion of contaminated material.

Postpartum metritis

During the postpartum period, the uterus is highly exposed to bacterial contamination. In fact, all uteri are contaminated during the immediate period following parturition. This bacterial contamination is eliminated rapidly in most of the females that are healthy and had a normal parturition because of the action of the local defense mechanisms such as mechanical evacuation of uterine content and increased blood flow and phagocytic and local immune response. Contamination of the uterus poses a problem when the uterus is flaccid or has lacerations and can cause a serious delay in uterine involution and impairment of fertility, especially if early postpartum re-breeding is considered (llamas and alpacas).

Prevention of postpartum metritis can be achieved by regular monitoring of the periparturient female, hygienic parturition conditions, and early and efficient obstetrical manipulation if needed. Any manipulation of the genital tract should be followed by local or systemic prophylactic antibiotic treatment.

Uterine prolapse

Uterine prolapse occurs as a complication of parturition, especially after dystocia, retained placenta, or excessive obstetrical manipulation. Uterine prolapse occurs in some old, predisposed females with an excessively relaxed vagina and pelvic ligaments. We have observed uterine prolapse in 2 female dromedaries following abortion at respectively the 6th and 8th months of pregnancy (Figure 8.25). In another case, complete uterine prolapse was observed in a dromedary female following forced extraction of the fetus attached to a car which resulted in severe laceration of the vulva and rupture of the peritoneum (Figure 8.25). The prolapse occurs soon after birth and is usually limited if observed early, but in most cases the entire uterus is exposed when the veterinarian arrives on site.⁽³⁹⁾

The prognosis of uterine prolapse depends on its extent, the state of the uterine tissue, and presence of other complications such as toxic shock and uterine-vessel rupture. The prognosis is poor if there is evidence of uterine blood-vessel rupture, lacerations, necrosis due to prolonged exposure of the uterus to the harsh environment (cold or sun), or if the animal shows signs of shock. The herdsman or owner should be instructed to wrap the uterus in a wet towel to prevent it from drying out and getting dirty. In addition, efforts should be made to calm the female and prevent her from getting up or moving too much in order to reduce the risk of injury to the uterus.

Recent uterine prolapse is easy to replace since edema has not yet developed, and does not require special procedures. However, when the prolapse is complete and relatively old, it is mandatory to proceed to epidural anesthesia in order to reduce expulsive efforts and work comfortably. We have found it very helpful to place the dromedary female in a sitting position on a slope or with the hind quarters elevated. Epidural anesthesia also has the advantage of preventing defecation. To avoid brusque movements of the female we recommend immobilization with xylazine. However, this treatment should only be used if the animal does not show signs of depression and shock. Treatment of uterine prolapse in the dromedary female may be facilitated by blockage of the pudendus nerve which prevents straining or tenesmus after reduction of the prolapsed uterus.⁽¹²⁷⁾ The prolapsed uterus is prepared by placing it in clean surgical drape. We have found that plastic or synthetic drapes are more suitable for the dromedary, especially if the condition happens out in the desert, as the sand does not stick to this type of material. The uterus is cleaned thoroughly and inspected for any signs of laceration or rupture. The placenta is removed if it can be done without traumatizing the uterine wall (Figure 8.25). The uterus is cleaned again with warm physiological saline solution containing a mild antiseptic. Any lacerations or perforations found should be sutured and bleeding vessels ligated before replacing the uterus. The uterine edema and size of the uterus can be reduced by massaging it gently or by wrapping it in a towel and squeezing it. The uterus is replaced progressively starting at the cervical and uterine portion close to the vulva by holding the organ slightly above the vulva and forcing it back using the palms of the hands. Care should be taken not to spread the fingers to avoid perforating the uterus. The first step of replacement is usually the most difficult and many practitioners tend to give up at that time. Once the uterus has been partly replaced, the rest becomes easy. As soon as the uterus is completely replaced, antibiotic boluses are placed in the uterine cavity and oxytocin is given (IM or IV) to stimulate its contraction. A truss suture of the vulva may be placed to prevent reoccurrence of the prolapse. In the dromedary, if epidural anesthesia has been used the animal should be watched until it regains full control of it hind legs. Parenteral antibiotics should be given to control any infection.⁽³⁹⁾
 

Amputation of the prolapsed uterus (hysterectomy) may be attempted in cases where the uterus cannot be salvaged. We have tried the procedure in the dromedary on two occasions but without success.

Uterine rupture and hemorrhage

Rupture or laceration of the uterus occurs as a result of dystocia or inadequate obstetrical manipulation. Forceful contraction in the presence of a malpositioned fetus or careless use of obstetrical equipment such as fetotomy equipment, hooks and detorsion rods can result in a perforation of the uterine wall. We have observed two cases of uterine rupture in the dromedary following bad management of a uterine torsion. Also, postpartum uterine rupture can be due to harsh manipulation of a prolapsed uterus. The incidence of uterine laceration in one study on slaughterhouse material was reported to be 3%.⁽⁸⁶⁾ Clinical manifestations of uterine rupture are similar to those of peritonitis and develop shortly after parturition or obstetrical manipulation. If the condition is not identified and treated early, the animal becomes weak and anorexic and shows signs of abdominal pain, especially in the case of severe hemorrhage. Diagnosis of uterine rupture is possible by rectal palpation or exploratory laparotomy. Treatment consists of surgical exteriorisation of the uterus, as for a cesarean section, and suture of the tear.

Rectovaginal lacerations and perineal rupture

Perineal or recto-vaginal lacerations occur as a result of pressure of the fetal forelimb or forceful traction of the fetus (Figure 8.25). The cases that we have seen in the dromedary have all involved 4 to 12 cm of the roof of the vagina and the rectum. They were all a few days old before being reported to us and therefore we have no observation concerning the effectiveness of surgical correction of this condition when it is still fresh. Perineal laceration does not necessary affect the fertility of the female if the vestibular sphincter is preserved and prevents entry of fecal material into the vagina. However, mating should be carefully monitored in order to prevent intromission of the penis in the rectum. We have observed pregnancies in two dromedary females with perineal rupture followed by normal delivery, although one of the females developed a vaginal prolapse during the last month of pregnancy that necessitated suture of the vulva. To prevent these problems, a surgical repair should be attempted when the wound has healed and swelling and granulation tissue has subsided.

Laceration of the vagina and vulva

Laceration and bruising of the vagina and vulva can result from the extreme stretching of these parts of the genital tract during the passage of the fetus (most notably the head and the thorax), especially in primiparous females with an oversized fetus. Due to the narrowness of the pelvic canal in the dromedary, vaginal and cervical laceration are very difficult to treat and may lead to formation of complete vaginal and cervical adhesions which in turn lead to sterility.
 

Udder diseases

Agalactia

Agalactia is the absence of lactation due either to a failure in milk let down or a failure of development of the mammary glands. Agalactia is frequently observed in young primiparous female llamas and dromedaries.⁽⁵⁸⁾ In this situation it is likely to be caused by inadequate milk let down due to nervousness of the female or to udder edema and increased pain. Agalactia due to inadequate preparation of the udder is observed in the case of premature birth, dystocia, or following cesarean section. Adequate handling of these cases of agalactia are very critical for the survival of the newborn because of the importance of colostrum for the passive transfer of immunity (cf. Obstetrics and neonatal care).

Failure of milk let down can be resolved by insuring that the female is calm and by intramuscular administration of oxytocin (20 IU for llamas and 40 IU for camels). The injection should be repeated every 2 hours. Massage of the udder with warm water and stripping of the teat may aid in reducing edema and udder congestion. Agalactia may be also be associated with rejection of the newborn in many primiparous females. These cases require close monitoring of the dam and her young until they bond. Colostrum feeding should be done in adequate volume within the first 12 hours of life. Colostrum from a recently-freshened female should be bottle fed to the newborn. It is important to keep a stock of frozen colostrum on hand for such cases.

Mastitis

Mastitis is a relatively uncommon disease in camelidae when compared to cattle. Incidence of mastitis can be increased in a dairy-camel operation due to hand milking and teat malformation. Acute mastitis has been reported to occur during the first few days following parturition, dystocia, or cesarean section in the dromedary.^{(71, 91)} It is characterized by alarming symptoms including anorexia, fever, general depression, swelling, and severe inflammation and pain of the udder (Figure 8.25). These females often reject the newborn. The mammary secretions in these cases are watery, yellowish, or blood tinged. Bacteria isolated from acute mastitis in the dromedary include Klebsiella pneumoniae and E. coli.⁽⁷¹⁾ Although some authors have suggested daily intrammary infusion with an antibiotics preparation used in cattle, we are opposed to this practice because of the particular anatomy of the camelidae udder and because of the difficulty in administration of such treatments. Our therapeutic approach in treating acute mastitis is via system antibiotic (trimethoprim-sulfamide or penicillin/aminoglycoside) and anti-inflammatory drugs (flunixin meglumine) in addition to regular stripping of the mammary glands. Hydrotherapy is beneficial in reducing local edema.

Subclinical or chronic mastitis is suspected when the young fail to grow normally or when an anomaly of conformation of the udder is observed, such as atrophy of one or more quarters, asymmetry, or presence of pustules on the surface. Examination of the milk can show the presence of pus or high cell count (CMT).^{(21, 96)} Bacteriological analysis of milk shows the same bacteria involved in cattle mastitis including Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Diplococcus pneumoniae,
Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Bacillus cereus, corynebacterium bovis and Candida albicans.^{(21, 91, 96)} Treatment of chronic mastitis is very difficult and the condition often results in loss of the affected quarter.^{(21, 96)}

Other conditions of the udder

Other conditions found in the udder include traumatic lesions such as lacerations (Figure 8.26). In the dromedary, the udder skin can show typical lesions of camel pox and mange.

References

1.    Abdel-Rahim, S. E. A., and A. E. El-Nazier. 1987. Estimation of Progesterone Level in Camels' (Camelus dromedarius) milk and its Application in Pregnancy Diagnosis. British Veterinary Journal. 143:555-559.
2.    Abdel-Rahim, S. E. A., and A. E. El-Nazier. 1990. Factors affecting camel reproductive performance in the tropics. Proceedings of the workshop 'Is it Possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?' -Paris: 131-147.
3.    Abdo, M. S., A. S. Al-Janabi, and A. A. Al-Kafawi. 1969. Studies on the Ovaries of the Female Camel During the Reproductive Cycle and in Conditions Affected with Cysts. Cornell Vet. 59:418-425.
4.    Adam. C. L., C. E. Moir, and P. Shiach. 1989. Plasma progesterone concentrations in pregnant and non-pregnant llamas (Lama glama). Veterinary Record. 125:618-620. 
5.    Adams, G. P., J. Sumar, and O. J. Ginther. 1991. Hemorrhagic Ovarian Follicles in Llamas. Theriogenology. 35:557-568.
6.    Adams, R., and F. Garry. 1994. Llama neonatology. Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 10:209-27.
7.    Agarwal. S. P.. and N. D. Khanna. 1990. Endocrine Profiles of the Indian Camel under Different Phases of Reproduction. Proceedings of the workshop 'Is it Possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?' -Paris: 77-104.
8.    Agarwal, S. P., N. D. Khanna, V. K. Agarwal, and P. K. Dwaraknath. 1987. Circulating Levels of Estrogen and Progesterone in Female Camel (Camelus dromedarius) During Pregnancy. Theriogenology. 28:849-859.
9.    Ahmed, W. M.. and A. R. Nada. 1993. Some Serum Biochemical Values of Dromedary Camels with Impaired Fertility. Pakistan Vet J. 13:16-19.
10.    Al-Ani, F. K.. K. H. Zenad, and M. R. Al-Shareef. 1992. Reproduction failure in female camels during an abattoir survey. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 62:553-555.
11.    Alarcon, V.. J. Sumar, G. S. Riera, and W. C. Foote. 1990. Comparison of Three Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis in Alpacas and Llamas. Theriogenology. 34:1119-1127.
12.    Ali, L. M„ S. I. A. Shalaby, M. R. Shalash, M. F. Nawito, and M. M. Afify. 1987. Bacterial Status of Abnormal Genitalia of the Camels. Egypt J. Vet. Sci. 24:41-44.
13.    Al-Khalaf, S., and A. El-Khaladi. 1989. Brucellosis of Camels in Kuwait. Comp. Immun. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 12:1-4.
14. Anouassi, A., M. Adnani, and E. Raed. 1992. Artificial insemination in the camel requires induction of ovulation to achieve pregnancy. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf., Dubai, UAE: 175-177.
15.    Anouassi, A., A. Tibary, M. Adnani, and A. Sghiri. 1994. Preovulatory phase characterization in Camelus dromedarius and induction of ovulation. Proceedings of FIS conference in Niamey, Niger., January 17-21, 159-167
16.    Arthur, G. H. 1992. An overview of reproduction in the camelids. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf., Dubai, UAE: 109-113.
17.    Arthur, G. H., A. T. A1 Rahim, and A. S. Al-Hindi. 1985. The Camel in Health and Disease: 7. Reproduction and Genital Diseases of the Camel. Br. Vet. J. 141:650-658.
18.    Arthur, G. H., and A. T. Al-Rahim. 1982. Aspects of Reproduction in the Female Camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia. Vet. Med. Rev. 1:83-88.
19.    Arthur. G. H„ and A. R. El Tigani. 1990. Camel Production in Saudi Arabia. Proceedings of the Workshop 'Is it Possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?’ - Paris: 149-160.
20.    Arthur, H. G., A. T. Al Rahim, and A. Hindi. 1985. Reproduction and genital diseases of the camel. Br. Vet. J. 141:650-659.
21.    Barbour, E. K„ N. H. Nabbut, W. M. Frerichs, H. M. Al-Nakhli, and A. A. Al-Mukayel. 1985. Mastitis in Camelus dromedarius in Saudi Arabia. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 17:173-179.
22.    Belknap. E. B., A. R. Schmidt, and C. L. Carleton. 1990. Double cervices in two llamas. JAVMA. 197:1049-1050.
23.    Bhargava, K. K., V. D. Sharma, and M. Singh. 1963. A Study of Mortality Rate, Sex-Ratio and Abortions in Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Indian J. Vet. Sci. 33:187-188.
24.    Bourke. D. A., C. L. Adam, and C. E. Kyle. 1992. Ultrasonography as an aid to controlled breeding in the Llama (Lama glama). Veterinary Record. 130:424-428.
25.    Bravo. P„ G. Stabenfeldt, M. Fowler, and B. Lasley. 1996. Pituitary response to repeated copulation and/or gonadotropin-releasing hormone administration in llamas and alpacas. Biol.
Reprod. 47:884-888.
26.    Bravo, P. W. 1993. Basic reproductive physiology in female South American Camelids. In: Fowler, M.E. (ed) Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. WB Saunders Co, Philadelphia, 1993, 532-536.
27.    Bravo, P. W., and L. W. Johnson. 1994. Reproductive Physiology of the Male Camelid. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice. 10:259-264.
28.    Bravo, P. W., D. Pezo. and V. Alarcon. 1995. Evaluation of early reproductive performance in the postpartum alpaca by progesterone concentrations. Animal Reproduction Science. 39:71-77.
29.    Bravo, P. W., G. H. Stabenfeldt. M. E. Fowler, and B. L. Lasley. 1993. Ovarian and endocrine patterns associated with reproductive abnormalities in llamas and alpacas. JAVMA. 202:268-272.
30.    Bravo, P. W„ and M. H. Varela. 1993. Prenatal development of the alpaca (Lama pacos). Animal Reproduction Science. 32: 245-252.
31.    Bravo, W„ and J. Sumar. 1985. Factores que determinan la fertilidad en alpacas. In: Anales de la V Convencion Internacional sobre Camelidos Sudamericanos. Ogranizado por IVITA de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos y Universidad San Antonio Abad del Cusco (Cusco, Peru): 4.
32.    Chauhan. R. S., and R. K. Kaushik. 1992. Pyometra in Camels: Case Report. Br. Vet. J. 148:84-85.
33.    Chauhan, R. S., R. K. Kaushik, and K. C. Satija. 1987. The bacterial spectrum of reproductive tract of camels. J. Remount Vet. Corps. 26:1-5.
34.    Chen. B. X., and Z. X. Yuen. 1984. Reproductive Pattern of the Bactrian Camel. In:    Cockrill,
W.R. (ed.) The Camelid, an all-purpose animal, Scand. Inst. Afric. Studies, Uppsala Sweden: 364-386.
35.    Chen, B. X., Z. X. Yuen, and G. W. Pan. 1985. Semen-induced ovulation in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus). J. Reprod. Fert. 73:335-339.
36.    Condorena, N., J. Sumar, E. Franco, and V. Alarcon. 1988. Largo de gestacion en llamas. Anales del XI Congreso Panamericano de Ciencias Veterinarias (Lima): 62.
37.    Condorena, N., and J. Velasco. 1979. Comparacion de dos sistemas de empadre en la alpaca. Rev. Inv. Pec. (IVITA) Univ. Nac. San Marcos. 4:47-54.
38.    Dahir, M. A., A. M. Jumale, M. I. Halane, and A. Prandi. 1990. Effects of Progestagen - PMSG Treatment on Oestrous Activity and Fertility of She-Camel Dromedaries at the End of the Dry Season. Proceedings of the workshop 'Is it Possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?' - Paris: 189-195.
39.    deMaaar, T. W. 1996. Uterine prolapse in a camel (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Camel Practice and Research. 3:147-148.
40.    Dioli, M. 1990. Reproduction of Camels in a Traditional Pastoral System in East Africa: Short Comments on a Slide Show. Proceeding of the workshop 'Is it Possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?1 - Paris: 161-162.
41.    Egbe Nwiyi. T. N„ and S. U. R. Chaudhry. 1994. Trypanosomiasis: prevalence and pathology of camel of arid zone of north eastern Nigeria. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 14:24-27.
42.    Elias, E. 1991. Left Ventrolateral Cesarean Section in Three Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). Veterinary' Surgery. 20:323 325.
43.    Elias, E., E. Bedrak, and D. Cohen. 1985. Induction of oestrus in the camel (Camelus dromedarius) during seasonal anoestrus. J. Reprod. Fert. 74:519-525.
44.    El-Khouly, A.-B. A., A. El-Nasr, A. Ontabli, and F. A. Gadir. 1990. Some Pathologic Affections of Camel Ovaries in U.A.E. Zagazig Vet. J. 18:210-217.
45.    EI-Khouly, A.-B. A.. F. A. Gadir, and A. A. Ontabli. 1991. Studies on Ovarian Teratoma in Camels. Zagazig Vet. J. 19:475-486.
46.    El-Wishy, A. B. 1987. Reproduction in the female dromedary (Camelus dromedarius): a Review. Animal Reproduction Science. 15:273-297.
47.    El-Wishy, A. B. 1989. Genital Abnormalities of the female dromedary (Camelus dromedarius). An Abattoir Survey. Zuchthyg. 24: 84-87.
48.    El-Wishy, A. B. 1990. Genital abnormalities in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Proceedings of the workshop 'Is it possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?' -Paris: 163-174.
49.    El-Wishy, A. B., and N. A. Homeida. 1984. Observations on the Ovaries of Slaughtered Camels (Camelus dromedarius). Vet. Med. J. 32:295-313.
50.    El-Wishy, A. B„ N. A. Homeida. M. A. Omar. A. M. Mobarak. and M. A. 1. El-Sayed. 1981. Functional Changes in the Pregnant Camel with Special Reference to Foetal Growth. Br. Vet. J. 137:527-537.
51.    Enany. M.. M. S. Hanafi, A. El-Ged, F. G„ F. R. El-Seedy, and A. Khalid. 1990. Microbiological Studies on Endometritis in She-Camel in Egypt. J. Egypt Vet. Med. Ass. 50:229-243.
52.    Fernandez-Baca, S. 1970. Luteal Function and the Nature of Reproductive Failures in the Alpaca. Ph.D Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
53.    Femandez-Baca, S. 1975. Alpaca breeding in the high Andes. World Anim. Rev. 14:1-8.
54.    Fernandez-Baca, S. 1993. Manipulation of reproductive functions in male and female New World camelids. Animal Reproduction Science. 33:307-323.
55.    Femandez-Baca, S., W. Hansel, and C. Novoa. 1970. Embryonic mortality in the alpaca. Biol. Reprod. 3:252-261.
56.    Fernandez-Baca, S., W. Hansel, R. Saatman, J. Sumar, and C. Novoa. 1979. Differentia] Luteolytic Effects of Right and Left Uterine Homs in the Alpaca. Biology of Reproduction. 20:586-595.
57.    Fetaih, H.. A. Pospischil, and A. Waldvogel. 1992. Electron Microscopy of the Endometrium of Camels in Normal and some Diseased Conditions. J. Vet. Med. (A) 39:271-281.
58.    Fowler, M. E. 1989. Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids. Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press.
59.    Frerking, H., and P. Andresen. 1978. Schnittentbindung bei einer Dromedarstute mit prazervikaler torsio uteri (Clinical short communication). Der Praktische Tierarzt: 128-129.
60.    Gahlot. T. K., D. S. Chouhan. S. K. Khatri. B. L. Bishnoi, and B. R. Chowdhary. 1983. Macerated Fetus in a Camel. Veterinary Medicine/Small Animal Clinician: 429-430.
61.    Gameel, S. E. A. M., S. O. Mohamed. A. A. Mustafa, and S. M. Azwai. 1993. Prevalence of Camel Brucellosis in Libya. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 25:91-93.
62.    Gimbo, A., and A. Zanghi. 1979. L'atresia follicolare nella femmina di Camelus dromedarius. Osservazioni istogenetiche e considerazioni funzionali sul corp luteo atretico. Clin. Vet. 102:200-225.
63.    Gimbo, A., and A. Zanghi. 1981. Su di una forma diffusa di metrite granulomatosa nella dromedaria. Rilievi isto-patologici. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilk. 123:249-261.
64.    Gitao, C. G., and D. M. O. Akabwai. 1989. Vaginal Prolapse in a Camel, Letter to the Editor, The Veterinary Record. 203-204.
65.    Gitao, G. C.. J. O. Evans, and D. J. Atkins. 1991. Simple management of vaginal prolapse in the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Bull. Anim. Hlth. Prod. Afr. 39:255-256.
66.    Hagemoser, W. A., J. P. Dubey, and J. R. Thompson. 1990. Acute toxoplasmosis in a camel. JAVMA. 196:347.
67.    Hopkins, S. M., G. C. Althouse. L. L. Jackson, and L.    E. Evans. 1991. Surgical Treatment of Uterine Torsion in a Llama (Lama glama). Cornell Vet. 81:425-428.
68.    Jessup, D. A., and W. R. Lance. 1982. What Veterinarians Should Know About South American Camelids. California Veterinarian. 11:12-18.
69.    Johnson, L. 1989. Llama medicine. Nutrition. Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 5:37-54.
70.    Johnson, L. W. 1989. Llama Reproduction. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice. 5:159-182.
71.    Kapur, M. P.. B. M. Khanna, and R. P. Singh. 1982. A Peracute Case of Mastitis in a She-camel Associated with Klebsiella Pneumoniae and Escherichia Coli. Indian Vet. J. 59:650-651.
72.    Karimi. S. K., and D. M. Kimenye. 1990. Some observations on the reproductive performance of camels kept in Marsabit, Northern Kenya. Proceedings of the workshop 'Is it Possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?' - Paris: 353-365.
73.    McEntee K. 1990. Reproductive pathology in domestic species. Academic Press Inc. San Diego
74.    McKinnon. A. O., and A. H. Tinson. 1992. Embryo transfer in dromedary camels. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf., Dubai, UAE: 203-208.
75.    McKinnon, A. O., A. H. Tinson, and G. Nation. 1994. Embryo transfer in dromedary camels. Theriogenology. 41:145-150.
76.    Musa, B. E. 1979. Reproductive patterns in the female camel (Camelus dromedarius). In: Workshop in Camels, Karthoum, Sudan. Stockholm, Sweden: Inti. Fnd. For Sci.: 279-284.
77.    Musa, B. E. 1979. Studies on the Ovary of the Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Sudan J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 20:51-56.
78.    Musa, B. E. 1984. A note on some abnormalities and anomalies in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Dtsch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 91:94-96.
79.    Musa, B. E„ and M. E. Abusineina. 1976. Development of the Conceptus in the Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Acta Veterinaria (Beograd). 26:17-24.
80.    Musa, B. E.. and M. E. Abusineina. 1976. Some Observations on Reproduction in the Female Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Acta Veterinaria (Beograd). 26:63-69.
81.    Mustafa, A. A., and M. H. A. El Karim. A Preliminary Survey for the Detection of Brucella Antibodies in Camel Sera. S. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 12:5-8.
82.    Nawito, M. 1973. Uterine Infections in the Camel. Egypt J. Vet. Sci. 1-2:17-22.
83.    Nawito. M., M. R. Shalash, R. Hoppe, and A. M. Rekha. 1967. Reproduction in female camel. Bulletin No. 2, National Research Centre, Cairo.
84.    Nawito, M. F. 1967. Some reproductive aspects in the female camel. D. V. M. Thesis Warsaw Agric Univ. Poland: 109 pp.
85.    Nigam, J. M.. R. C. Gupta, S. K. Khar, and B. R. Shetty. 1977. Torsion of the Uterus in a Camel. The Haryana Veterinarian. 116:33-36.
86.    Nur, H. M. 1984. Some Reproductive Aspects and Breeding Patterns of the Somali Camel (Camelus dromedarius). In: Camel Pastoralism in Somalia. Hussein, M. A. (ed). Proceedings from Workshop in Baydhabo, Mogadishu, Somali Academy of Science and Arts, (Camel forum Working paper. #7): 91-110.
87.    Pan. G. W.. X. X. Zhao. B. H. Chen. S. Jiang, Y. M. Huang, Y. S. Zu, and H. Y. Wang. 1992. The
ovulation-inducing effect of seminal plasma in the Bactrian camel. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf., Dubai, UAE: 159-161.
88.    Petris, M. A. 1956. Caesarean Operation in Camels. The Veterinary Record, 68: 374-376.
89.    Powers, B. E., L. W. Johnson, L. B. Linton. F. Garry, and J. Smith. 1990. Endometrial biopsy technique and uterine pathologic findings in llamas. JAVMA. 197:1157-1162.
90.    Purohit, N. R.. D. S. Chouhan, and R. J. Choudhary. 1989. Post-Caesarean Ventral Hernia in Two Camels. Br. Vet. J. 145:294.
91.    Quandil. S. S„ and J. Oudar. 1984. Bacteriological study of a few mammites cases on she-camel (Camelus dromedarius) in United Arab Emirates (Preliminary note). Revue Med. Vet. 135:705-707.
92.    Radwan. A. I., S. I. Bekairi, and P. V. S. Prasad. 1992.    Serological and bacteriological study of brucellosis in camels in central Saudi Arabia. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 11:837-844.
93.    Rai, A. K., S. P. Agarwal, V. K. Agarwal, and N. D. Khanna. 1991. Induction of early puberty in female camels. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 61:1265-1268.
94.    Rathore, G. S. 1986. Diseases of female camels. In: Camels and their Management, 1st edn., New Delhi, ICAR: 144-147.
95.    Ribadu, A. Y„ D. Ogwu, C. O. Njoku. and L. O. Eduvie. 1991. An Abattoir Survey of Female Genital Disorders of Imported Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kano, Nigeria. Br. Vet. J. 147:290-292.
96. Saad, N. M„ and A. E.-R. Thabet. 1993. Bacteriological Quality of Camel's Milk with Special Reference to Mastitis. Assiut Vet. Med. J. 28:194-199.
97.    Saley, M. 1990. Reproductive performance of the dromedary in Niger (Camelus dromedarius). Prospects for improvement. Proceedings of the workshop 'Is it Possible to Improve the Reproductive Performance of the Camel?' - Paris: 379-386.
98.    Schwarzenbeger, F., G. Speckbacher, and E. Banberg. 1995. Plasma and fecal progestagen evaluations during and after the breeding season of the female vicuna (Vicuna vicuna). Theriogenology. 43:625-634.
99.    Shalash, M. R. 1965. Some reproductive aspects in the female camel. World Rev. Anim. Prod. 4:103-108.
100.    Shalash. M. R. 1980. Reproduction in camel. Proc. 9th Int. Cong. Anim. Prod, and A. I. (Madrid). 2:559-567.
101.    Shalash, M. R. 1987. Review Article: Reproduction in Camels. Egypt J. Vet. Sci. 24:1-25.
102.    Shalash. M. R. 1991. Reproduction in camels. Egyptian Journal of Veterinary Science. 24:1-25.
103.    Shalash. M. R., and M. Nawito. 1963. Some aspects of sterility in the female camel. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift. 70:522-524.
104.    Shalash, M. R., and M. Nawito. 1964. Some Reproductive Aspects in the Female Camel. 5th ICAR: 263-273.
105.    Shawki, M. M., M. N. El-Hariri, and M. A. Omar. 1985. Endometritis of She-Camel in Sharkeia Province. Egypt J. Vet Sci. 22:169-172.
106.    Skidmore. J. A., M. Billah, and W. R. Allen. 1995. The ovarian follicular wave pattern in the mated and non-mated dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement. 49:545-548.
107.    Skidmore, J. A.. M. Billah. and W. R. Allen. 1996. The ovarian follicular wave pattern and induction of ovulation in the mated and non mated one humped camel. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. 106:185-192.
108.    Smith, C. 1991. Exploring llama reproduction - Research Roundup. JAVMA. 199:973-978.
109.    Smith. C. L„ A. T. Peter, and D. G. Pugh. 1994. Reproduction in Llamas and Alpacas: A Review. Theriogenology. 41:573-592.
110.    Sumar, J. 1983. Studies on Reproductive Pathology in Alpacas. MS Thesis, Dept Obstet and Gynaec., College of Vet. Med., Swedish Univ. of Agric. Sci. Upsala.
111.    Sumar, J. 1985. Reproductive Physiology in South American Camelids. in: Land, R.B., Robinson D.W. (eds), Genetics of Reproduction in Sheep, Butterworths, London: Chapt. 9, 81-95.
112.    Sumar, J. 1988. South American camelid raising and reproduction in the high Andes. In: Hjort al Ornas (ed), Camels in development: Sustainable Production in the African Drylands. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1988,
pp: 81-95.
113.    Sumar, J. B. 1996. Reproduction in llamas and alpacas. Animal Reproduction Science, 42: 405-415
114.    Sumar, J. 1994. Effects of various ovulation induction stimuli in alpacas and llamas. Journal of Arid Environments. 26:39-45.
115.    Sumar, J., and M. Garcia. 1984. Fisiologia Reproductiva en Los Camelidos Sudamericanos: Alpaca Y Llama. lAEA-SM-292/16:26-27.
116.    Sumar, J., and V. Leyva. 1972. Relacion entre la ubicacion del cuerpo luteo y la localizacion del embrion en la en la llama (Lama glama). Res. Proyectos Investigacion. Univ. Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Periodo 1975-1979. 1:21-27.
117.    Tibary, A.. and A. Anouassi. 1996. Ultrasonographic changes of the reproductive tract in the female camel (Camelus dromedarius) during the follicular cycle and pregnancy. Journal of Camel Practice and Research. 3:71-90.
118.    Tibary, A., and A. Anouassi. 1997. Retrospective study on a special form of ovario-bursal pathology in the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Submitted.
119.    Tibary, A., and M. Bakkoury. 1994. Reproduction Equine: La Jument. Actes Edition, Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II, Morocco.
120.    Urquieta, B., and J. R. Rojas. 1990. Studies on the reproductive physiology of the vicuna (Vicugna vicugna). In: Livestock Reproduction in Latin America, Proc. of the Final Research Coordination Meeting of the FAO/IAEA/ARCAL. Vienna, 1990; 407-428.
121.    Wemery, J. 1991. The Barren Camel with Endometritis - Isolation of Trichomonas Fetus and Different Bacteria. J. Vet Med. B. 38:523-528.
122.    Wemery, U., and A. Ali. 1989. Bacterial infertility in camels (Camelus dromedarius) Isolation of Campylobacter fetus. Dtsch. Tierartzl. Wschr. 96:497-498.
123.    Wemery, U., M. Ali, and J. E. Cooper. 1996. Bacillus cerus abortion in a nine year old dromedary camel- A case report. Journal of Camel Practice and Research. 3:153.
124.    Wernery, U., and R. Wernery. 1992. Uterine infections in the dromedary camel - a review. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf., Dubai, UAE:
155-158.
125.    Wilker, C. E„ V. N. Meyers-Wallen, D. H. Schlafer, N. L. Dykes, A. Kovacs, and B. A. Ball. 1994. XX Sex reversal in a llama. JAVMA. 204:112-115.
126.    Wilson, A. J., R. Dolan, and W. M. Olaho. 1980. Important camel diseases in selected areas of Kenya. IPAL Tech. Report No. E-6; UNESCO, Nairobi.
127.    Yadim. Z. A., and G. A. Ragab. 1994. Surgical Anatomy of the Perineum of the She-Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Assiut Vet. Med. J. 32:1-15.
128.    Yagoub, I. A., A. A. Mohamed, and M. O. Salim. 1990. Serological survey of Brucella abortus antibody prevalence in the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) from Eastern Sudan. Revue Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. 43:167-171.
129.    Zaki, R. 1948. Brucella infection among ewes, camels and pigs in Egypt. J. Comp. Path. 58:145-151.
130.    Zhao, X. X.. Y. M. Huang, and B. H. Chen. 1992. A study of semen characters and chemical composition of seminal plasma of bactrian camels. Chinese Journal of Animal Science. 28:13-15.
131.    Zhao, X. X., Y. M. Huang, and B. X. Chen. 1992. Biological activity of Gonadotrophin-releasing Hormone-like factors in the seminal plasma of the Bactrian camel. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf., Dubai, UAE: 163-168.
132.    Zhao, X.-X., Y.-M. Huang, and B.-X. Chen. 1994. Artificial insemination and pregnancy diagnosis in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus). Journal of Arid Environments. 26:61-65.
133.    Zowghi, E., and A. Ebadi. 1988. Brucellosis in camels in Iran. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 7:383-386.