Behaviour

The natural behaviour of donkeys has evolved over time. For 60 million years they have been flight animals, surviving by running from predators. Even after 6,000 years of domestication, donkeys will try to escape from danger where possible. Anything they perceive as a threat could trigger their ‘flight response’. If they cannot easily move away from the threat, they will use their ‘fight response’ instead. A donkey’s fight (or defence) response seems to be engaged more easily than that of a horse.

The wild ancestors of domesticated donkeys came from the rugged terrain of northern Africa. Here, limited supplies of food and water meant the environment could not support large herds of animals. Unlike other equine populations, these donkeys led quite solitary lives. Mares lived in small groups, often of just one or two individuals. To increase their chances of breeding, donkey stallions developed territorial behaviour.

Vegetation was sparse and donkeys browsed on low-nutrient plants for 14-18 hours each day, travelling up to 30 kilometres in the process. Not only did this keep them fit, it also provided mental stimulation and enrichment through a varied diet.

Most domestic donkeys have very different lifestyles to those of their wild ancestors. They commonly live in a restricted area where food is readily available. Domestication can cause donkeys many problems, including overfeeding, boredom, lack of exercise, and poor social interaction.

BEHAVIOURAL TRAITS

Stoic or Stubborn?

‘Stoic’ and ‘stubborn’ are two terms often associated with donkeys. Understanding these two labels for donkey behaviour can make handling safer and more effective.

Stoicism is typical predator-avoidance behaviour in more solitary species, like the donkey. As prey animals, illness or injury weakened donkeys in the wild, putting them in danger. The ability to hide weakness made them less of a target to predators, increasing their chances of survival. Stoicism may also have benefited wild stallions during retention of breeding territories.

Whilst a stoic nature is useful for wild donkeys, it can cause problems for domesticated donkeys. It can be difficult to know when something is wrong. A sick or injured donkey may show no obvious signs until a condition becomes severe. Instead, they may just appear ‘dull’. Dull donkeys often refuse food, and owners may describe them as looking ‘sad’.

Compared to horses, the stoic nature of donkeys makes them less likely to show clear signs of pain or distress. However, stoic behaviour does not mean that donkeys do not experience pain or distress any less.

Horses and ponies will communicate pain or distress through their body language (such as muscular tension, eye wrinkling, or muzzle tightening). Subtle body language and a longer coat make it harder to distinguish these visual indicators in donkeys.

Look for signs of tension and fear across the whole of a donkey’s body. Ear position, tail clamping, tail swishing and speed of movement combine to give an accurate assessment of the animal’s experience.

The stubbornness much attributed to donkeys is a misunderstanding of their stoic nature and diminished pain and distress signals. Donkeys also have a good sense of self-preservation and are unwilling to do things they perceive as dangerous.

A donkey in a fearful state will become defensive. They will use their natural problem-solving abilities and fight instincts to attempt escape. You should recognise this escape behaviour as fear and not stubbornness or lack of cooperation

Fear

Fear in the donkey may induce both ‘flight’ and ‘fight’ responses, both of which can result in defensive behaviour.

Flight responses may be subtle and include:

• tail tucking and clamping
• increased muscle tension, especially in the muzzle
• turning the head away from the handler
• stepping sideways slowly to avoid being caught
• ‘freezing’ in fearful situations.

Fight responses are defensive and can be a health and safety risk to donkeys and people. They may include:

• head tossing
• stamping, pawing and striking out
• leaning or pushing into the handler (dangerous when the handler is against a solid object)
• biting
• kicking.

Donkeys can be very effective when kicking forwards with their hind legs. They can easily kick a person examining their forelimb.

Both flight and fight responses increase stress levels and carry a concomitant risk of hyperlipaemia. Recognising these responses will allow intervention at an early stage. Watch for fear signals and stop or pause treatment before the donkey’s behaviour escalates. This will also prevent a negative association with professionals carrying out a procedure, avoiding future problems.

Whilst it may be tempting to continue with a procedure when the donkey demonstrates fight behaviours, the situation can become dangerous. If possible, withdraw and reconsider the need for immediate intervention. Otherwise it is possible that:

• the safety of the handler can become seriously compromised
• the long-term memory may make handling the donkey dangerous in future
• increased stress levels may affect blood sample results
• stress may compromise sedation or anaesthetic.

Gradual desensitisation, counter-conditioning and appropriate shaping plans are effective for tackling many problems, including ‘needle-shy’ patients. Use of these techniques will make the donkey safer and less stressed for future procedures.

Bonding

Despite the solitary life seen in resource-limited wild environments, domestic donkeys form strong bonds with their companions. Most prefer to form pair bonds with other donkeys. However, they will occasionally form strong bonds with horses, ponies, mules or other species.

Bonding has important implications for donkey welfare and behaviour. Separation of bonded donkeys can cause extreme stress, potentially leading to complications, such as hyperlipaemia. Strongly bonded animals may become stressed just by separating them over a stable door. Always consider the implications of separating bonded companions for management or treatment. Make every effort to avoid separation.
 

If a donkey has a bonded companion, keep the companion close during examination or treatment. Ideally, the donkeys should be within sight of each other. Separation from a bonded companion may lead to an increased stress response before treatment has even begun.

The closeness of bonded individuals varies. Donkeys may be ‘pair bonded’ (two donkeys bonded to one another) or they may form groups of three or four. Bonding in pairs can be unequal, with one donkey strongly attached to another, but no bond the other way.

Occasionally donkeys do not appear to bond with others, these are known as ‘singles’. A donkey reared without other donkeys may never form close bonds, even when introduced to others. These animals still need company for good welfare and the opportunity to display normal behaviour.

Even if no strong bond exists, stress and anxiety are reduced when another calm equine is present during treatment.

Grief

Strong bonding means a donkey can suffer significant stress following the removal, death or euthanasia of a companion. They may show repeated wandering, pacing and braying as they look for the missing donkey.

When planning euthanasia, consider the effect of companion loss on the survivor. Make plans to reduce their stress levels.

If appropriate for all animals involved, introduce the bonded pair to another quiet donkey, over a fence, prior to euthanasia. This will leave a companion within the survivor’s visual field. After euthanasia, make a structured introduction between the survivor and the new companion.

The behavioural reaction to a euthanased companion can vary widely. When a bonded donkey dies, allow companions to see and spend time with the body. Leave surviving donkeys with the body for as long as it takes them to lose interest.
 

Monitor the remaining companions carefully after the bereavement. Pay special attention to their appetite and feeding behaviour to minimise the risk of hyperlipaemia.

If the survivor is alone after bereavement, assess the need for a new companion. Individual donkeys have different responses and some may not need a new companion immediately.

Sexual Behaviour

Sexual behaviour is often more exaggerated in the donkey than in horses and ponies. Female donkeys often cycle throughout the winter months and stallion-like behaviour can persist strongly after castration.

There are significant differences between the behaviour of donkey stallions, geldings and females.

Donkey stallions are prone to showing sexual behaviour and aggression. They can be placid, friendly animals until their hormones kick in, causing a sudden change in behaviour.

As stallions mature, their behaviour becomes more challenging, especially if living with other males or with females nearby. They can be difficult to handle and even dangerous with inexperienced handlers.

Colts can become more difficult to handle as they mature sexually. From around two years of age, they can start to cause problems for their owners. Problems are more likely in colts that have been poorly trained during the critical first two years of life.

Colts show a rise in testosterone from about 10 months of age and show mounting behaviours from this age. They are not likely to have fertile sperm until about 18 months of age. Domesticated stallions will try to breed with female relatives.

Stallions can, in some cases, be aggressive to foals. The risk appears greater if the foal is not their own or if they have been separated from the dam and foal for any length of time.

Donkey stallions, and some geldings, will fight agressively with other donkeys. They can cause serious wounds on the neck and front legs of their opponents. Fighting or attempts to reach females can also cause injuries to handlers, either accidentally or through direct aggression. However, completely isolating stallions from other animals is unacceptable in welfare terms. It can lead to further behavioural problems caused by stress and frustration.

Advise owners to castrate their donkey stallion, unless they intend to use him for breeding.

Geldings tend to be less aggressive, and more predictable, than stallions. However, this depends on how old they were when castrated. If a two-year-old donkey has learnt his own strength, he might display difficult behaviour even after castration.

Once castrated, individual animals will take differing lengths of time to settle into normal gelding behaviour. Time can range from between three months to a year.

Females and geldings will live together happily and may become bonded companions. However, to avoid unwanted breeding, keep older castrated males separate from females for at least two months after castration.

Territorial Behaviour

The territorial and solitary social behaviour of wild donkeys differs from the behaviour of free-ranging horses. Consequently, domesticated donkeys exhibit more territorial behaviour than horses. In certain parts of the world this has led to their use as guard animals, to protect livestock from predators. Unfortunately, their territorial nature means donkeys will occasionally chase and attack small animals (such as sheep, poultry, cats and dogs). Not all donkeys display this behaviour. Occasionally a donkey will bond with other species, sharing accommodation and living together safely without incident, but owners need to be aware that they cannot rely on this. Donkeys are very strong and can cause injury, or even death, to other animals if they do attack them.

Vocalisation

Donkey vocalisation includes their signature ‘bray’, which is unique to each individual. The bray can travel over several kilometres. Wild stallions will bray as a territorial display and to communicate with distant females.

In domestication, both male and female donkeys bray for various reasons, including:

• excitement
• anticipation
• loneliness
• territorial response
• boredom
• sexual arousal
• healthy communication between donkeys.

Braying can become a learned behaviour if a donkey finds it effective at getting food or attention. A donkey’s ear position helps define the purpose of the bray, for example:

• ears gently backwards - greeting another donkey
• ears flat back - an assertive donkey dealing with a threat
• ears firmly forward - seen during sexual advances.

Explore the cause thoroughly if a donkey is braying continually or without apparent reason.

RESTRAINT TECHNIQUES

When handling or restraining donkeys your primary guiding principle is to give the animal ‘a good experience’. This will reduce stress and associated risks and will prevent learnt fear of procedures or handling.

Giving a good experience during restraint requires:

• prior planning
• sufficient time
• constructive consultation with those present
• consideration of the donkey’s individual needs
• a flexible approach
• cooperation between all parties.

Restraining the Fearful Donkey

Many donkeys will be known to the handler and relaxed in their presence, especially if they receive regular treatment or handling. Where this is not the case, the donkey may need prior training as preparation for any procedures or treatments. This can help to make the procedure a good experience for the donkey and a safe experience for handlers and professionals carrying out the procedure.

Identify donkeys that react adversely to close human contact or restraint before they require any treatment. If a donkey is averse to restraint or close contact with strangers, carefully consider the need for immediate treatment. It may be necessary to delay treatment so that assessment and training can be carried out.

A behaviourist would be able to advise on a training programme prior to treatment to help the animal accept human handling where this is appropriate.

Donkeys that have a companion are likely to be calmer if their companion is close. Bring any bonded companion to within a safe distance of the restrained donkey. If there is no bonded companion, try bringing another calm donkey or suitable companion.

Prior to physically restraining a donkey, ensure they are wearing a correctly fitted headcollar. The following may help calm the donkey enough for the planned procedure:

• stroke and fuss the donkey to reassure them
• if appropriate, offer chopped fibre feed in a bucket
• keep the donkey’s companions close.

Blocking the donkey’s view of the clinician or procedure can help. The person restraining the donkey may be able to do this by adjusting their body or hand position.

Where appropriate, after consulting handlers who know the donkey, offer food as the first part of the restraint process. Food can act as a distraction and helps to create a positive experience.

Sedation may be necessary if handling the donkey could compromise the health and safety of animal or handler.

Physical Restraint

If a donkey requires physical restraint, consider how much physical force is acceptable. To gauge the amount of restraint required, remember to apply sufficient pressure to provide the feeling of restraint, but avoid excessive pressure that causes pain or discomfort.

The following is the recommended technique to ensure a good experience for the donkey and safety for the handler and professional:

1. Put a correctly fitting headcollar with lead rope on the donkey
2. Stand facing the side of the donkey’s head
3. Using your arm nearest the donkey, place it over the top of the animal’s nose and hold the head into your body
4. With your free hand, reach over the donkey’s head behind ears and place the palm of your hand against the edge of the cheekbone, holding the head to your body
5. Lean your hip or leg into the donkey’s brisket to restrict forward movement
6. Place your feet at a comfortable distance apart to remain stable if the animal pushes forward.

Do not put fingers or thumbs inside the headcollar during restraint, they may become injured if the donkey struggles.

If a donkey will not keep their hindlimb still for inspection or treatment, you may require additional assistance so that a handler can hold up the forelimb on the same side, to reduce the risk of kicking.

Following the application of any restraint, spend a few minutes with the donkey reassuring them and providing a positive experience. Give food rewards if appropriate, or wither scratches if the animal is comfortable with the contact.

Nose Twitch

A nose twitch, applied to the top lip, may be effective on donkeys, but individuals vary in their response. Only apply a nose twitch under direct veterinary supervision, when there is no other option. Do not use it for procedures such as routine veterinary, farriery or dental treatments. Never apply a nose twitch for more than five minutes.
 

Ear Twitch

An ear twitch is any folding, twisting or holding of the ear. Avoid using an ear twitch, it can have long-term negative effects on the donkey’s behaviour. Never use an ear twitch for general routine treatments.

Moving the ‘Frozen’ Donkey

Untrained, inexperienced or fearful donkeys may ‘freeze’ or pull away from pressure. When working with donkeys that are reluctant to lead, remember the species’ natural traits of self-preservation and reduced fear signals.

Even donkeys that normally lead well can freeze and become unwilling to move when fearful or in new situations. Be patient, allowing the donkey time to process the new situation and become calm. If it is essential to move a ‘frozen’ donkey it may be necessary to consider some different strategies.

• Make the environment inviting for the donkey:
  • remove objects the donkey fears
  • turn on lights in dark areas
  • open doors or gates as widely as possible
  • spread straw or other bedding material.

• Position the patient’s companion at a distance and encourage the donkey to move towards their friend.

• Walk the patient’s companion just in front of the patient.

• Use food incentives.

• Back the donkey through doorways and into stocks.

• Use a broad webbing strap behind the donkey’s hindquarters to prevent backwards movement and encourage forward steps.

• Blindfold the donkey if appropriate, but this carries the risk of inducing panic.

COMMON BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS

Pain, fear and anxiety are the most common causes of behavioural problems. Donkeys experiencing fear and anxiety will enter a state of heightened arousal, as they scan their environment for danger. This increased state of awareness will cause the donkey to escalate their flight and fight behaviour. They will seek to escape or avoid the fearful situation. Increasing levels of restraint, force or pain will increase the animal’s fear, further escalating this cycle.

Using appropriate behaviour modification principles will increase safety and compliance and reduce fear. Identifying the cause of a donkey’s behaviour is the vital first step in improving their behaviour and treating them.

When it is not possible to easily modify behaviour, seek the guidance of a trained professional (such as a certified veterinary behaviourist or a clinical animal behaviour counsellor).

Wood Chewing

Wood chewing is often a normal behaviour, linked to the donkey’s natural browsing habit. Donkeys should have constant access to fibrous forage to fulfil their need to graze for 14-18 hours a day. Examples include straw, hay, and the bark, branches and leaves of non-poisonous plants. Also consider using slow feeders, small-holed hay nets and track systems. However, undertake further investigation if wood-chewing becomes persistent and efforts to improve enrichment and browsing opportunities do not reduce its occurrence.

Difficulty Handling Feet

Balancing on three legs for five minutes or more is not a normal behaviour for any equine. Hence, all equines start out reluctant to have their feet handled.

Donkeys are generally a small size with narrow stature. To prevent unbalancing them or causing discomfort, hold feet as low as possible and do not abduct away from the body. Farriers should avoid holding the donkey’s limb between their legs.
 

Unfortunately, foot handling is an often-neglected element of donkey training, perhaps due to the donkey’s propensity to kick when scared. This lack of training results in donkeys that are nervous and have invariably learned to avoid having their feet handled.

Pain is a very common cause of kicking and resistance to foot handling. Wherever possible, rule out pain as a cause of unwanted behaviour.

To deal with the unwanted behaviour, a professionally produced behaviour modification plan is the first recommendation.

If treatment must take place without delay, use the restraint procedures laid out in this chapter. Include chemical sedation where appropriate. The donkey will then need to undergo a behaviour modification programme to reduce the behaviour in future.

Aggressive Play

Owners often report fighting amongst their donkeys, especially after introducing new animals. However, perhaps due to their territorial nature, aggressive play (‘play fighting’) seems to be a regular feature of donkey behaviour. The amount donkeys play depends on their character, age, gender and the availability of suitable companions. Young male animals are most likely to engage in bouts of aggressive play. Although the behaviour often decreases as donkeys age, some continue to play aggressively well into their teenage years and beyond.

Aggressive play involves similar behaviour to adult fighting, typically seen between stallions in the wild. However, it is less severe and has a more ‘friendly’ feel to it. Play fighting donkeys keep their play going by switching between defensive and offensive roles, unlike when fighting seriously. They spend most of their time engaged in peaceful activities together. During aggressive play, donkeys stop short of serious injury, although minor wounds may occur.

Occasionally, if donkeys are mismatched in temperament, size or age, play bouts can escalate and become one-sided, leading to injuries. In this case, explore behaviour-based interventions.